THE 



REAMERY PATRONS 
HANDBOOK 








^ 



A BOOK OF INFORMATI 



FOR THB 



KEEPERS OF DAIRY COWS 




Class _JL! 

Book L_ 

Copyright^ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 




The Dairy Queen: — 

E 'en though thou art of man the servant; the taker from 
him of such treatment as in wisdom or lack of it, he may ac- 
cord thee; the yielder to him in thy maternity of that mystic 
life fluid that sustains him, gives to him his power, and 
makes for his profit and pleasure; the glad recipient of his 
kindness, or the meek object of his untaught abuse. All 
these art thou, yet, to the end of tune, thou shalt still rule 
thy kingdom, and that of man's need, a Queen. 



THE 

CREAMERY PATRON'S 
HANDBOOK. 



BEING A COMPILATION OF THOSE THINGS THE DAIRY FARMER 
SHOULD KNOW AND PRACTICE, TO THE SPEEDIER AT- 
TAINMENT OF A SATISFACTORY INCOME FROM 
HIS DAIRY, AND THE PLEASURE AND 
PROFIT THAT COMES OF DAIRY 
WORK WELL AND SKILL- 
FULLY DONE. 



ILLUSTRATED. 



A book to be studied rather than read; to hare its application in daily practice 

rather than lost it* If in the mere knowing; to lead onto 
achievement rather than ielly to entertain. 



PUBLISHED BY 

THE NATIONAL DAIRY UNION, 

154 LAKE ST., CHICAGO. 

OCTOBER, 1902. 



THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 

T~mi Co«u: Reocived 

NOV. 77 1902 

._ COPVHIOHT BNTHV 

CL*«S^-V'XXo. No. 
COPY B. 



Copyright, 1902, 

BY 

The National Dairy Union. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



But words are things, and a small drop of ink, jailing like dew 
upon a thought, produces that which makes thousands, perhaps mill- 
ions, think.— Byron. 

The world is too large to bring all individuals into that contact with 
their fellow workers whereby each will learn of the other's needs, and each 
contribute something helpful to the other, except by means of their printed 
words — books. "But words are things,'' and in the reading — diligently, 
understanding^ — we may apply the world's best thoughts as we will to 
our own profit. 

In this book are the best thoughts of well known and prominent in- 
vestigators and workers in the dairy field. Practical men, every one of 
thv. j m, and who speak from the experience that comes of the doing of things 
with their own hands, assisted by habits of study— the scientific spirit that 
prompts the observer to seek into the how and the why of things that the 
world may the better understand, and, understanding, go on to still greater 
achievement. Words are the things that lead to action and actions are 
the expressions of knowledge. Those who put off the acquirement of the 
full knowledge of their industry, will ever be surpassed in their endeavors 
by those who seek the truth that they may know, for with truth abundant 
this is not a time for guessing. 

In this book are expounded no theories. Every author deals with 
facts and takes them first hand. The non-essential things are left out and 
the essential ones simmered down for easy, every day, practical use. It 
is a book of the cow, first, last and in the middle. A book of the cow, the 
calf, the feed, the stable, the pasture, the milking, the care and sale of the 
milk. Much of it is a record of what has been done with cows, how it was 
done and who did it. Much more of the book tells what can be done by 
you, the reader — the best way to go about it , and what you may expect 
in return for the practical application of that better knowledge in your dairy 
work. 

There is need of better dairying methods. There is need of a general 
awakening to the demands on the dairy and its wonderful possibilities. 
The dairy farmer will find a big profit when he dairies right — when he ap- 
plies true dairy principles as they are here demonstrated in superabund- 
ance of example. 

Applying the right methods doesn't mean more work for the same 
gain. No one ever lost anything by doing things right — by doing the right 
things at the right time and in the right way. And those things, and that 
way, is every bit the whole story of what this book endeavors to impress 
and help you to accomplish. 

Chicago, III., October 1, 1902. 




H. B. GURLER. 



CONTENTS. 

Pa ar 

The National Dairy Union and Its Work for the 
Protection of Pure Butter Against Oleomargarine 
Imitation Charles Y. Knight, xi - xix 

The Patron and the Creamery IV. D. Hoard. i - -i 

Building Up a Dairy Herd, with Suggestions on Mid- 
summer Forage Crops c. F. Curtiss. 5 - 16 

Selection of Cows c. P. Goodrich. 17-22 

Stable Location, Construction and Sanitation • 

H. B. Curler. 23 - 30 

The Comparative Value of Feeds, with Tables Giving 

Their Percentage of Digestible Nutrients 

W. A. Henry. 31- 43 

Management of Young Dairy Stock, with a Review 
of Some Interesting Calf Experiments. .D. H. Otis. 45 - 61 

Economic Feeding and Care of Dairy Cows, with In- 
structions and Examples of How to Formulate 
Dairy Rations 7. L. Haeckcr. 63 - 86 

Commercial Feeding Stuffs ; . W. H. Jordan. 87 - 94 

Tainted or Defective Milks, Their Causes and 

Methods of Prevention H. L. Russell. 95 - 1 18 

Milk and Its Production for Cities and Towns 

; A. IV. Bitting. 1 19 - 128 

Milking, Cooling and General Care of Milk for 

Delivery to Creamery E. H. Farrington. 129 - 139 

Necessity of Making Good Butter and the Farmer's 

Part in Its Production and Sale Joseph Kolarik. 141 - 147 

Variation in Tests; Composition of Milk as Observed 
at the Model Dairy at the Pan-American Exposi- 
tion at Buffalo, N. Y Dc Witt Goodrich. 149 - 167 

Breeds of Cows ; Views on the Building Up of a Dairy 

Herd S.M. Tracy. 169 - 179 

Common Ailments of Cows and Calves, and Their 
Treatment. a.H. Hartwie. 181 - 186 



CONTENTS. 

Page. 
Buh.ding Silos, Growing the Corn and Making 

Silage A. W . Trow. 187 - 196 

The Physiology of Milk Secretion — With Notes on 

the Effects of Foods, Drugs, Exposure, Exercise 

and Abnormal Bodily Condition A. IV. Bitting. 197 - 230 

Management of Dairy Work on the Large Estate of 

Biltmore Farms George F. Weston. 231 - 233 

Dairy Animals of the United States as Reported 

Upon by Twenty State Experiment Stations 235 - 301 

1. Alabama /. F. Duggar. 236 

2. Connecticut C. L. Beach. 237 - 245 

3. Illinois IV. J. Fraser. 245 - 248 

4. Indiana C. S. Plumb. 249 - 251 

5. Kansas D. H. Otis. 252 - 254 

6. Kentucky D. IV. May. 255 - 256 

7. Maryland H.J. Patterson. 2$J - 259 

8. Michigan C. D. Smith. 269 

9. Minnesota T. L. Haecker. 260 - 264 

10. Missouri C. H. Eckles. 265 

1 1 . Montana R. S. Shaw. 265 

12. Nebraska A. L. Haecker. 266 - 270 

13. Oregon F. L. Kent. 271 - 273 

14. Pennsylvania Harry Hayivard. 27 \ - 27^ 

15. South Carolina CM. Conner. 276 

16. South Dakota A. H. Whcaton. 277 - 278 

17. Tennessee Andrew M. Sonic. 278 - 282 

18. Utah F.B. Linficld. 283 - 286 

19. Vermont , Joseph L. Hills. 286 - 291 

20. Wisconsin E. H. Farrington. 291 - 301 

Scale of Points for Scoring Dairy Animals 303 - 308 

Ground Plan of Modern Creamery 309 



OFFICERS OF THE NATIONAL DAIRY UNION. 

Page. 

HON. W. D. HOARD, President xx 

H. B. GURLER, Treasurer iv 

CHARLES Y. KNIGHT, Secretary x 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 
Subject. Page. 

i. Frontispiece — "'The Dairy Queen" 

2. Goldie's Torment — Iowa Champion Aged Bull 5 

3. Nicolette — Jersey 6 

4. Princess of Blackhawk — Holstein .....' 8 

5. College Moore — Shorthorn 10 

6. College Lily — Aberdeen Angus 11 

7. Sylvia — Red Poll 12 

8. Belle — Grade Shorthorn 14 

9. Ideal's Pride — An Unprofitable Dairy Cow 15 

io> Interior View of Cow Stables at "Clover Farm". ■ 24 

1 1. The Improved "Drown" Cow Stall '. . 26 

12. The H. B. Gurler Sanitary Milk Pail — Complete. 28 

13. The H. B. Gurler Sanitary Milk Pail — Taken Apart 28 

14. Side View of "Drown" Cow Stall and Cement Work 29 

15. Steer Raised on Skim Milk . .. 46 

16. "Ready for Breakfast" 47 

17. Skim Milk Steers at One Year Old 49 

18. Skim Milk Calves 50 

19. Whole Milk Calves 52 

20. Calves Raised with Dams . 53 

21. Ypsey's Start in Life 56 

22. Ypsey as a Yearling. 57 

2T). Skim Milk H.:ifers Raised for the Dairy 59 

24. Half Guernsey Heifer— Raised on Skim Milk 61 

25. Sectional View of Cow's Udder — Fig. i 97 

26. Microscopic View Fat Globules and Bacteria — Fig. 2 97 

27. The Wrong and Right Kind of a Milk Pail — Fig. 3 98 

28. Bacterial Contamination Arising From Hair — Fig. 4 99 

29. Germ Content of Barn Air — Fig. 5 100 

30. Effect of Cooling Milk on Growth of Bacteria — Fig. 6 101 

31. Cheese Made from Tainted Milk — Fig. 7 102 



illustrations. 

Subject. Page. 

32. A Block (Swiss) Cheese Made from "Gassy" Milk — Fig. 8 103 

33. "Slimy" or "Ropy" Milk — Fig. 9 105 

34. Bacteria in Milk Handled in Ordinary Way — Fig. 10 106 

35. Bacteria in Milk Drawn with Care — Fig. ii 107 

36. Railroad or "New York" Milk Can • • 129 

37. Iron-clad Tin Milk Pail ■ • 130 

38. Elgin Milk Strainer . . 130 

39. Milk Cooler and Aerator ■ ■ 131 

40. "Iowa" or "Dubuque" Factory Milk Can ■ ■ 131 

41. Curtis Wire-cloth Milk Strainer 133 

42. Milk Aerator — Mounted on Factory Can • • 133 

43. Star Milk Cooling System • • 134 

44. Cheese Factory Can ., 134 

45. Milk Testing Outfit for Dairy Farmers' Use 135 

46. Creamery Patron's Cow That Gave Small Yield 137 

47. Creamery Patron's Cow That Gave Large Yield 138 

48. Mary Marshall — Winning Cow at Pan-American Model Dairy. 162 

49. Gladys Drummond — Typical Ayrshire Cow 171 

50. Jennie May — Typical Devon Cow 173 

51. Hanna Melchior — Typical Holstein Friesian Cow '' 175 

52. Nancy — Typical Brown Swiss Cow 177 

53. Typical Dutch Belted Cow and Twin Calves • 178 

54. A Good Plan of Silo for Bank Barn 188 

55. Corn Harvester at Work in Field 189 

56. Silo with Shingle Roof and Flat Hoops 191 

57. Silo with Board Roof and Round Hoops 192 

58. Two Round Silos with Stone Foundations 193 

59. Construction of a "King" Circular All Stone Silo 194 

60. Golden Rosebay — "A Queen Among Cows" 232 

61. Cow Representing Dairy Group — Conn 237 

62. Cow Representing Fleshy Group — Conn 239 

63. Cow Lacking Abdominal Capacity — Conn 240 

64. Dairy Type ( Showing Names of Parts) — Conn 241 

65. Rose. A Grade Cow — III 246 

66. Zuider Zee Agnes, Holstein Friesian — III 247 

67. Tina Clay's Pietertje Bell, Holstein Friesian — III -. . . 248 

68. Jersey Cow "Early Morn" — Ind 249 

69. Holstein Friesian Cow, "Manada Purdue III" — Ind 250 

70. Scrub Cow, Number 33 — Kan. 252 

71. Scrub Cow, Number 72 — Kan 253 

72. Scrub Cow, Number 20 — Kan 254 

73. Jersey Cow, "Dollie's Valentine" — Ky 255 



illustrations. 

Subject. Page. 

74. Prize Jersey Bull, "Guenon's Lad" — Ky 256 

75. High Grade Jersey Cow, Number 7 — Md 258 

76. Grade Hereford Cow, Number 15 — Md 259 

77. Guernsey Cow, "Sweet Eriar" — Minn 262 

78. "A Good Dairy Cow" — Minn 262 

79. Fairy, A Medium Dairy Cow — Minn 263 

80. "A Poor Dairy Cow" — Minn 264 

81. Annie, High Grade Jersey — Neb . 266 

82. Cora, High Grade Jersey — Neb 267 

83. Bessie McKinley, Full Blooded Holstein — Neb <•... 268 

84. Juno, "A Wrong Conformation" — Neb 269 

85. Diana II, High Grade Jersey — Neb 270 

86. "The Best Jersey Bull in Oregon" — Oreg ■ ■ 271 

87. Belle Jefferson, Jersey — Oreg 272 

88. Golden Glow, Imported Jersey — Oreg ■ ■ 273 

89. Champion Jersey Cow "Adelaide of St. Lambert" — Penn 274 

90. "Clemson's Beauty" — S. C 276 

91. Rioter's Exile of St. Lambert — Tenn . 279 

92. Tormentor, at Nine Years — Tenn 280 

93. Ida's Stoke Pogis, at Three Years — Tenn 281 

94. Duchess of Bloomfield, Jersey — Tenn 282 

95. Mary Challenger, Pure Bred Shorthorn — Utah 283 

96. "A Typical Dual Purpose Cow" — Utah 284 

97. Jersey Bull, State Fair First Prize Winner — Utah 285 

98. Ayrshire Cow. "Nancy B." — Vt 287 

99. Eva, A Grade Jersey — Vt 288 

100. Garfield's Black Princess, A Two-year-old — Vt.... 289 

101. "The Best Jersey Bull Ever in Vermont" — Vt 290 

102. Janesville Rose, Pure Bred Shorthorn — Wis . 293 

103. Rose, Grade Shorthorn — Wis 294 

104. Lady, Grade Red Polled Cow — Wis • • 295 

105. Donation, Grade Holstein Cow — Wis ■ 296 

106. Nan, Grade Jersey Cow — Wis 297 

107. Alma Marie ITI, Pure Bred Holstein — Wis 298 

108. Lily Ella, First Prize Guernsey Cow — Wis 299 

109. Ltlyita. Second Prize Guernsey Cow — Wis 300 

no. Ground Plan of Modern Creamery 309 




CHARLES Y. KNIGHT. 



THE NATIONAL DAIRY UNION AND ITS WORK FOR 

THE PROTECTION OF PURE BUTTER AGAINST 

OLEOMARGARINE IMITATION. 



BY CHARLES Y. KNIGHT, SECRETARY OF THE NATIONAL DAIRY UNION, 
EDITOR AND MANAGER OF CHICAGO DAIRY PRODUCE. 

Chicaqo. 

Farmers who sell milk to the creamery and receive pay therefor upon 
basis of the market price of butter little realize the losses which they have 
incurred as a result of the manufacture and sale of a mixture of lard, tal- 
low and cottonseed oil, known as oleomargarine, but until July 1 of this 
year almost universally sold or served as butter because of the fact that 
it was colored in exact imitation thereof. 

In 1886 this traffic amounted to 21,513,537 lbs.; in 1894 it had grown 
to 69,622,246 lbs.; in 1900 to 107,045,028 lbs., and during the last fiscal 
year of the existence of oleomargarine artificially colored, the make in this 
country was 123,180,075 lbs., equal to 2,463,615 fifty-pound tubs, over six 
thousand car loads, or as much oleomargarine as one thousand large cream- 
eries turn out butter. In other words, twenty-seven oleomargarine factories 
turned out oleomargarine equal in quantity to 25 per cent, of the butter product of 
all the creameries in the United States ! 

The National Dairy Union was organized for the purpose of fighting 
this fraud. Its officers for the past five years have been: 

President— Ex-Gov. W. D. Hoard, of Wisconsin, editor of Hoard's 
Dairyman. 

Treasurer — Hon. H. B. Gurler, DeKalb, 111., ownerof " Clover Farm," 
author of " American Dairying," and whose entire interests are in dairying. 

Secretary — Chas. Y. Knight, of Chicago, editor and manager of Chi- 
cago Dairy Produce, a weekly newspaper devoted to buttermaking. 

In December, 1898, the proposition to ask Congress to place a tax of 
10 cents per pound upon oleomargarine, colored in imitation of butter, 
was laid before the dairymen of the country by this organization. The 
work was immediately taken up, and, after more than three years of con- 
stant effort, the measure was finally passed. Every buttermaker or 
creamery manager knows what the results have been. 

Those most benefited by the work of the National Dairy Union are 
the milkers of cows. Every cent added to the value of butter is a cent 



x 'j THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

directly into their pockets. The merchant makes as much on butter sold 
at 15 Jents as he aocs on that sold at 25 cents, and the former price re- 
quires less of his capital to handle : the creamery company is benefited only 
to the extent of its increased output of butter, which results from driving a 
fraudulent competitor out of the market. It is the farmer who gets nine- 
tenths of any advance in price of butter. 

The object of the publication of this book is two-fold : First, to con- 
vey to the producer of milk information which will aid him to secure 
quality and quantity for his own financial gain ; second, to provide means 
through its sale with which to sustain this organization in its work of pro- 
tecting the dairy interests of this country against competition with fraud- 
ulent substitutes, 

The principal provisions of the new oleomargarine law, which passed 
Congress finally April 29, and was signed by President Roosevelt May 9 
1902 are that all oleomargarine artificially colored shall pay an internal 
revenue tax of 10 cents per pound, the tax to be paid by the manufacturer, 
and any person who takes uneolored oleomargarine and colors it for the 
use and consumption of others, except his own family, shall be classed as a 
manufacturer and be subject to the 10 cent tax and $600 per year manu- 
faoturcr's license*. 

In 1886 Congress passed a law placing a tax of 2 cents per pound upon 
all oleomargarine, and making provisions for marking, branding, inspection, 
etc The act of 1902 raised the tax to 10 cents per pound upon all oleo- 
margarine that is colored to resemble butter, and reduced to i-cent per 
pound the tax on that made in the color of the natural fats of which it is 
composed. The law of 1902, therefore, is really an amendment to the law 
of 1886. As amended by the recent act, the full oleomargarine law is as 

°Beit enacted ly the Senate and House of Representatives or the United States of £™g™ *» 

mmmmmmmm 

' "Hu'kJturLT^oleoTaS^Sl ^Hundred dollars. Every person who man, 
factJetoSarlarine fofsale shall be deemed a ^r^^fXuTalTconsurnption of 

Z^ToTa^i^^^Z^^^^ S? EM7»'A , SMtt to the 

provisions thereof. ™„___ 

paid stamps^re affixed, shall not be required to pay the special tax of a wholesale dealer m oleo- 

ma % r eta^l > yaTr^inileon 1 h ar«! l e rine shall pay forty-eight dollars. Every person who sells oleo- 
.nargS In less qlantufes than ten pounds at one time shall be regarded as a retail dealer m 



THE NATIONAL OLEO LAW. Xlll. 

Oleomargarine. And sections thirty two hundred and thirty-two, thirty-two hundred and thirty- 
three, thirty-two hundred and thirty-four, thirty-two hundred and thirty-five, thirty-two hundred 
and thirty-six, thirty-two hundred and thirty-seven, thirty-two hundred and thirty-eight, thirty- 
two hundred and thirty-nine, thirty-two hundred and forty, thirty-two hundred and forty-one, 
and thirty-two hundred and forty-three of the Revised Statutes of the United States are, so far as 
applicable, made to extend to and include and apply to the special taxes imposed by this section, 
and to the persons upon whom they are imposed; Provided, That in case any manufacturer of 
oleomargarine commences business subsequent to the thirtieth day of June of any year, the 
special tax shall be reckoned from the first day of July in that year, and 6hall be five hundred 
dollars. 

Provided, further, That wholesale dealers who vend no other oleomargarine or butterine except 
that upon which a tax of one-fourth of one cent per pound is imposed by this Act, as amended, shall 
pay tivo hundred dollars; and such retail dealers as vend no other oleomargarine or butterine except 
that upon which is imposed by this Act, as amended, a tax of onerfourlh of one cent per pound shall 
pay six dollars. 

Sec. 4. That every person who carries on the business of a manufacturer of oleomargarine 
without having paid the special tax therefor, as required by law. shall, besides being liable to the 
payment of the tax, be fined not less than one thousand nor more than five thousand dollars; and 
every person who carries on the business of a wholesale dealer in oleomargarine without having 
paid the special tax therefor, as required by law, shall, besides being liable to the payment of the 
tax, be fined not less than five hundred nor more than two thousand dollars; and every person 
who carries on the business of a retail deaier in oleomargarine without having paid the special 
tax therefor, as required by law. shall, besides being liable to the payment of the tax, be fined not 
less than fifty nor more than five hundred dollars for each and every offense. 

Sec. 5. That every manufacturer of oleomargarine shall file with the collector of internal 
revenue of the district in which his manufactory is located such notices, inventories, and bonds, 
shall keep such books and render such returns of material and products, shall put up such signs 
and affix such number to his factory, and conduct his business under such surveillance of officers 
and agents as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the 
Treasury, may, by regulation, require. But the bond required of such manufacturer shall be 
with sureties satisfactory to the collector of internal revenue, and in a penal sum of not less than 
five thousand dollars; and the sum of said bond may be increased from time to time and addi- 
tional sureties required at the discretion of the collector or under instructions of the Commissioner 
of Internal Revenue. 

Sec. 6. That all oleomargarine shall be packed by the manufacturer thereof in firkins, tubs, 
or other wooden packages not before used for that purpose, each containing not less than ten 
pounds and marked, stamped, and branded as the Cemmisoioner of Internal Revenue, with the 
approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, shall prescribe; and all sales made by manufacturers 
oi oleomargarine and wholesale dealers in oleomargarine shall be in original stamped packages. 
Retail dealers in oleoma 'garine must sell only from original stamped packages in quantities not 
exceeding ten pounds, and shall pack the oleomargarine sold by them in suitable wooden or 
paper packages, which shall be marked and branded as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, 
with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, shall prescribe. Every person who knowingly 
sells or offers for sale, or delivers or offers to deliver, any oleomargarine in any other form than in 
new wooden or paper packages as above descri bed, or w ho packs in any package any oleomargarine 
in any manner contrary to law, or who falsely brands any package or affixes a stamp on any 
package denoting a less amount of tax than required by law, shall be fined for each offense not 
more than one thousand dollars and be imprisoned not more than two years. 

Sec. 7. That every manufacturer of oleomargarine shall securely affix, by pasting, on each 
package containing oleomargarine manufactured by him. a label on which shall be printed, 
besides the number of the manufactory and the district and State in which it is situated, these 
words: "Notice — The manufacturer of the oleomargarine herein contained has complied with 
all the requirements of law. Every person is cautioned not to use either this package again or 
the stamp thereon again, nor to remove the contents of this package without destroying said 
stamp, under the penalty provided by law in such cases." Every manufacturer of oleomargarine 
who neglects to affix such label to any package containing oleomargarine made by him, or sold or 
offered for sale by or for him, and every person who removes any such label so affixed from any 
such package, shall be fined fifty dollars for each package in respect to which such offense is 
committed. 

Sec. 8. Tliat upon oleomargarine which shall be manufactured and sold, or removed for con- 
sumption or use, there shall be assessed and collected a tax of ten cents per pound, to be paid by the 
manufacturer thereof; and any fractional part of a pound in a package shall be taxed as a pound; 
Provided, When oleomargarine is free from artificial coloration that causes it to look like butter of any 
shade of yelloiv said tax shall be one-fourth of. one cent per pound. The tax levied by this section shall 
be represented by coupon stamps: and the proinsions of existing laws governing the engraving, issue, 
sale, accountability, effacement and destruction of stamps relating to tobacco and snuff, as far as 
applicable, are hereby made to apply to stamps provided for by this section. 

Sec. 9. That whenever any manufacturer of oleomargarine sells, or removes for sale or 
consumption, any oleomargarine upon which the tax is required to be paid by stamps, without the 
use of the proper stamps, it shall be the duty of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, within a 
period of not more than two years after such sale or removal, upon satisfactory proof, to estimate 
the amount of tax which has been omitted to be paid, and to make an assessment therefor and 
certify the same to the collector. The tax so assessed shall be in addition to the penalties 
imposed by law for such sale or removal. 

Sec. 10. That oleomargarine imported from foreign countries shall, in addition to any 
import duty imposed on the same, pay an internal revenue tax of fifteen cents per pound, such 
tax to be represented by coupon stamps, as in the case of oleomargarine manufactured in the 
United States. The stamps shall be affixed and canceled by the owner or importer of the oleo- 
margarine while it is in the custody of the proper custom-house officers; and the oleomargarine 
shall not pass out of the custody of said officers until the stamps have been so affixed and can- 
celed, but shall be put up in wooden packages, each containing not less than ten pounds, as 
prescribed in this Act for oleomargarine manufactured in the United States, before the stamps are 



XIV. THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 

affixed; and the owner or importer of such oleomargarine shall be liable to all the penal pro- 
visions of this Act prescribed for manufacturers of oleomargarine manufactured in the United 
States. Whenever it is necessary to take any oleomargarine so imported to any place other than 
the public stores of the United States for the purpose of affixing and canceling such stamps, the 
collector of customs of the port where such oleomargarine is entered shall designate a bonded 
warehouse to which it shall be taken, under the control of such custom officer as. such collector 
may direct; and every officer of customs who permits any such oleomargarine to pass out of his 
custody or control without compliance by the owner or importer thereof with the provisions of 
this section relating thereto shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be fined not less than one 
thousand dollars nor more than five thousand dollars, and imprisoned not less than six months 
nor more than three years. Every person who sells or offers for sale any imported oleomargarine 
or oleomargarine purporting or claimed to have been imported, not put up in packages and 
stamped as provided by this Act, shall be fined not less than five hundred dollars nor more than 
five thousand dollars, and be imprisoned not less than six months nor more than two years. 

Sec. 11. That every person who knowingly purchases or receives for sale any oleomargarine 
which has not been branded or stamped according to law, shall be liable to a penalty of fifty 
dollars for each such offense. 

Sec. 12. That every person who knowingly purchases or receives for sale any oleomargarine 
from any manufacturer who has nor paid the special tax shall be liable for each offense to a 
penalty of one hundred dollars, and to a forfeiture of all articles so purchased or received, or of 
the full value thereof. 

Sec. 13. That whenever any stamped package containing oleomargarine is emptied, it shall 
be the duty of the person in whose bands the same is, to destroy utterly the stamps thereon; and 
any person who wilfully neglects or refuses so to do shall for each such offense be fined not 
exceeding fifty dollars, and imprisoned not less than ten days nor more than six months. And 
any person who fraudulently gives away or accepts from another, or who sells, buys, or uses for 
packing oleomargarine, any such stamped package, shall for each such offense be fined not exceed- 
ing one hundred dollars, and be imprisoned not more than one year. Any revenue officer may 
destroy any emptied oleomargarine package upon which the tax-paid stamp is found. 

Sec. 14. That there shall be in the office of the Commissioner of Internal Re venue an analytical 
chemist and a mioroscopist who shall eacU be appointed by the Secretary of the Treasury, and 
shall each receive a salary of two thousand five hundred dollars per annum, and the Commissionerof 
Internal Revenue may, whenever in his judgment the necessities of the service so require, employ 
chemists and microscopists, to be paid such compensation as he may deem proper, not exceeding 
in the aggregate any appropriation made for that purpose. And such Commissioner is authorized 
to decide what suDstances, extracts, mixtures, or compounds which may be submitted for his 
inspection in contested cases are to be taxed under this Act; and his decision in matters of taxa- 
tion under this Act shall be final. The Commissioner may also decide whether any substance 
made in imitation or semblance of butter, and intended for human consumption, contains 
ingredients deleterious to the public health; but in case of doubt or contest his decision in this 
class of cases may be appealed from to a board hereby constituted for the purpose, and composed 
of the Surgeon-General of the Army, the Surgeon-General of the Navy, and the Commissioner of 
Agriculture; and the decisions of this board shall be final in the premises. 

Sec. 15. That all packages of oleomargarine subject to tax under this Act that shall be 
found without stamps or marks as herein provided, and all oleomargarine intended for human 
consumption which contains ingredients adjudged, as hereinbefore provided, to be deleterious to 
the public health, shall be forfeited to the United States. Any person who shall wilfully remove 
or deface the stamps, marks or brands on packages containing oleomargarine taxed as provided 
herein shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be punished by a fine of not less than one 
hundred dollars nor more than two thousand dollars, and by imprisonment for not less than thirty 
days nor more than six months. 

Sec. 16. That oleomargarine may be removed from the place of manufacture for export to a 
foreign country without payment of tax or affixing stamps thereto, under such regulations and 
the tiling of such bonds and other fecurityas the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the 
approval of the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe. Every person who shall export oleo- 
margarine shall brand upon every tub, firkin, or other package containing such article the word 
"oleomargarine." in plain Roman letters not. less than one-half inch square. 

Sec. I". That whenever any person engaged in carrying on the business of manufacturing 
oleomargarine defrauds, or attempts to defraud, the United States of the tax on the oleomargarine 
produced by him, or any part thereof, he shall forfeit the factory and manufacturing apparatus 
used by him, and all oleomargarine and all raw material for the production of oleomargarine 
found in the factory and on the factory premises, and shall be fined not less than five hundred 
dollars nor more than five thousand dollars, and be imprisoned not less than six months nor more 
than three years. 

Sec. 18. That if any manufacturer of oleomargarine, any dealer therein or any importer or 
exporter thereof shall knowingly or wilfully omit, neglect, or refuse to do, or cause to be done, 
any of the things required by law in the carrying on or conducting of his business, or shall do any- 
thing by this Act prohibited, if there be no specific pen ilty or punishment imposed by any other 
section of this Act for the neglecting, omitting, or refusing to do, or for the doing or causing to be 
done, the thing required or prohibited, he shall pay a penalty of one thousand dollars; and if the 
person so offending be the manufacturer of or a wholesale dealer in oleomargarine, all the oleo- 
margarine owned by him, or in which he has any interest as owner, shall be forfeited to the 
United States. 

Sec. 19. That all fines, penalties, and forfeitures imposed by this Act may be recovered in 
any court of competent jurisdiction. 

Sec. 20. That the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of 
the Treasury, may make all needful regulations for the carrying into effect of this Act. 

Sec. 21. That this Act shall go into effect on the ninetieth day after its passage; and all 
wooden packages containing ten or more pounds of oleomargarine found on the premises of any 
dealer on or after the ninetieth day succeeding the date of the passage of this Act shall be deemed 
io be taxable under section eight of this Act, and shall be taxed, and shall have affixed thereto 



THE NATIONAL OLEO LAW. XV. 

the stamps, marks, and brands required by this Act or by regulations made pursuant to this Act: 
and for the purposes of securing the affixing of the stamps, marks, and brands required by this 
Act, the oleomargarine shall be regarded as having been manufactured and sold, or removed from 
the manufactory for consumption or use, on or after the day this Act takes effect; and such stock 
on hand at the time of the taking effect of this Act may be stamped, marked, and branded under 
special regulations of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, approved by the Secretary of the 
Treasury; and the Commissioner of Internal Revenue may authorize the holder of such package 
to mark and brand the same and to affix thereto the proper tax-paid stamps. 
AN ACT to reduce the revenue and equalize the duties on imports, and for other purposes. 

Sec. 41. That wholesale dealers in oleomargarine shall keep such books and render such 
returns in relation thereto as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the 
Secretary of the Treasury, may, by regulation, require, and such books shall be open at all times 
to the inspection of any internal revenue officer or agent. 

******** 

Sec. 53. That all special taxes shall become due on the first day of July, eighteen hundred 
and ninety-one. and on the first day of July in each year thereafter, or on commencing any trade 
or business on which such tax is imposed. In the former case the tax shall be reckoned for one 
year; and in the latter case it shall be reckoned proportionately, from the first day of the month 
in which the liability to a special tax commenced to the first day of July following. Special tax 
stamps may be issued for the months of May and June, eighteen hundred and ninety one, upon 
payment of the amount of tax reckoned proportionately under the laws now in force, and such 
stamps which have been or may be issued for the period ending April thirtieth, eighteen hundred 
and ninety-one, may, upon payment of one-sixth of the amount required to be paid for such 
stamps for one year, be extended until July 1st, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, under such 
regulations as may be prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. And it shall be the 
duty of special tax-payers to render their returns to the deputy collector at such times within the 
calendar month in which the special tax liability commenced as shall enable him to receive such 
returns, duly signed and verified, not later than the last day of the month, except in cases of 
sickness or absence, as provided for in section three thousand one hundred and seventy-six of the 
Revised Statutes. 

That all articles known as oleomargarine, hutterine, imitation process, renovated or adulterated 
butter, or imitation cheese, or any substance in the semblance of butter or cheese not the usual product 
of the dairy and not made exclusively of pure and unadulterated milk or cream, transported into any 
State or Territory or the District of Columbia, and remaining therein for use, consumption. sale or 
storage therein, shall, upon the arrival within the limits of such state or Territory or the District of 
Columbia, be subject to the operation and effect of the lairs of such State or Territory or the District of 
Columbia, enacted in the exercise of its police powers, to the same extent and in the same manner as 
though such articles or substances hail been produced in such State or Territory or the District of 
Columbia, and shall not be exempt therefrom by reason of being introduced therein in original packages 
or otherwise. 

RENOVATED AND ADULTERATED BUTTER AMENDMENT. 

Sec. 4. That for the purpose of this Act "butter" is hereby defined to mean an article of 
food as defined in " An Act defining butter, also imposing a tax upon and regulating the manufac- 
ture, sale, importation and exportation of oleomargarine," approved August second, eighteen hun- 
dred and eighty-six ; that "adulterated butter" is hereby defined to mean a grade of butter pro- 
duced by mixing, re-working, re-churning in milk or cream, refining or in any way producing a 
uniform, purified, or improved product from different lots or parcels of melted or unmelted butter 
or butterfat. in which any acid, alkali, chemical or any substance whatever is introduced or used 
for the purpose or with the effect of deodorizing or removing therefrom rancidity, orany butter or 
butterfat with which there is mixed any substance foreign to butter as herein defined, with intent 
or effect of cheapening in cost the product, or any butter in the manufacture or manipulation of 
which any process or material is used with intent or effect of causing the absorption of abnormal 
quantities of water, milk or cream ; that '• process butter" or ''renovated butter" is hereby de- 
fined to mean butter which has been subjected to any process by which it is melted, clarified or re- 
fined and made to resemble genuine butter, always excepting " adulterated butter " as defined by 
this Act. 

That special taxes are imposed as follows : 

Manufacturers of process or renovated butter shall pay fifty dollars per year and manufac- 
turers of adulterated butter shall pay six hundred dollars per year. Every person who engages in 
the production of process or renovated butter or adulterated butter as a business shall be con- 
sidered to be a manufacturer thereof. 

Wholesale dealers in adulterated butter shall pay a tax of four hundred and eighty dollars 
per annum, and retail dealers in adulterated butter shall pay a tax of forty-eight dollars per an- 
num. Every person who sells adulterated butter in less quantities than ten pounds at one time 
shall be regarded as a retail dealer in adulterated butter. 

Every person who sells adulterated butter shall be regarded as a dealer in adulterated but- 
ter. And sections thirty-two hundred and thirty-two, thirty-two hundred and thirty-three, thirty- 
two hundred and thirty-four, thirty-two hundred and thirty-five, thirty-two hundred and thirty- 
six, thirty-two hundred and thirty-seven, thirty-two hundred and thirty-eight, thirty-two hundred 
and thirty-nine, thirty-two hundred and forty, thirty-two hundred and forty-one, and thirty-two 
hundred and forty-three of the Revised Statutes of the United States are, so far as applicable, 
made to extend to and include and apply to the special taxes imposed by this section and to the 
persons upon whom they are imposed. 

That every person who carries on the business of a manufacturer of process or renovated 
butter or adulterated butter without having paid the special tax therefor, as required by law, shall, 
besides being liable to the payment of the tax, be fined not less than one thousand and not more 
than five thousand dollars ; and every person who carries on the business of a dealer in adulterated 



XVI, THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 

butter without having paid the special tax therefor, as required by law, shall, besides being liable 
to the payment of the tax, be tlued not less than fifty, nor more than Ave hundred dollars for each 
offense 

That every manufacturer of process or renovated butter or adulterated butter shall file with 
the collector of internal revenue of the district in which his manufactory is located such notices, 
inventories, and bonds, shall keep such books and rendei such returns of material and products, 
shall put up such signs and affix such number of his factory, and conduct his business under such 
surveillance of officers and agents as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of 
the Secretary of the Treasury, may by regulation require. But the bond required of such a manu- 
facturer shall be with sureties satisfactory to the collector of internal revenue, and in a penal 
sum of not less than five hundred dollars ; and the sum of said bond may be increased from time 
to time and additional sureties required at the discretion of the collector or under instructions of 
the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. 

That all adulterated butter shall be packed by the manufacturer thereof in firkins, tubs, or 
other wooden packages not before used for that purpose, each containing not less than 10 lbs. and 
marked, stamped, and branded as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the 
Secretary of the Treasury, shall prescribe; and all sales made by manufacturers of adulterated 
butter shall be in original stamped packages. 

Dealers in adulterated butter must sell only original or from original stamped packages, and 
when such original stamped packages are broken the adulterated butter sold from same shall be 
placed in suitable wooden or paper packages, which shall be marked and branded as the Commis- 
sioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, shall prescribe. 
Every person who knowingly sells or offersfor sale, or deliversor offers to C.eliver, any adulterated 
butter in any other form than in nevy wooden or paper packages as above described, or who packs 
in any package any adulterated butter in any manner contrary to law, or who falsely brands any 
package or affixes a stamp on any package denoting a less amount of tax than that required by 
law, shall be fined for each offense not more than $1,000 and be imprisoned not more than two years. 

That every manufacturer of adulterated butter shall securely affix, by pasting, on each pack- 
age containing adulterated butter manufactured by him a label on which shall be printed, besides 
the number of the manufactory and the district and State in which it is situated, these words: 
"Notice.— That the manufacturer of the adulterated butter herein contained has complied with all 
the requirements of law. Every person is cautioned not to use either this package again or the 
stamp thereon, nor to remove the contents of this package without destroying said stamp, under 
the penalty provided by law in such cases." Every manufacturer of adulterated butter who neg- 
lects to affix such label to any package containing adulterated butter made by him, or sold or 
offered for sale for or by him, and every person who removes any such label so affixed from any 
such package shall be fined $50 for each package in respect to which such offense is committed. 

That upon adulterated butter, when manufactured or sold or removed for consumption or 
use, there shall be assessed and collected a tax of 10 cents per pound to be paid by the manufac- 
turer thereof, and any fractional part of a pound shall be taxed as a pound, and that uuon process 
or renovated butter, when manufactured or sold or removed for consumption or use, there shall be 
assessed and collected a tax of one-fourth of one cent per pound, to be paid by the manufacturer 
thereof, and any fractional part of a pound shall be taxed as a pound. The tax to be levied by 
this section shall be represented by coupon stamps, and the provisions of existing laws governing 
engraving, issuing, sale, accountability, eflacement, and destruction of stamps relating to tobacco 
and snuff, as far as applicable are hereby made to apply to the stamps provided by this section. 

That the provisions of sections nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, 
seventeen, eighteen, nineteen, twenty, and twenty-one of "An Act defining butter, also imposing 
a tax upon and regulating the manufacture, sale, importation, and exportation of oleomargarine," 
approved August second, eighteen hundred and eighty-six, shall apply to manufaturers of " adul- 
terated butter "to an extent necessary to enforce the marking, branding, identification and regu- 
lation of the exportation and importation of adulterated butter. 

Sec. 5. All parts of an Act providing for an inspection of meats for exportation, approved 
August thirtieth, eighteen hundred and ninety, and of an Act to provide for the inspection of live 
cattle, hogs, and the carcasses and products thereof which are the subjects of interstate com- 
merce approved March third, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, and of amendment thereto ap- 
proved March second, eighteen hundred and ninety five, which are applicable to the subjects and 
purposes described in this section shall apply to process'or renovated butter. And the Secretary 
of Agriculture is hereby authorized and required tocausea rigid sanitary inspection to be made, 
at such times as he may deem proper or necessary, of all factories and storehouses where process 
or renovated butter is manufactured, packed cr prepared for market, and of the products thereof 
and materials going into the manufacture of same. All process or renovated butter and the pack- 
ages containing the same shall be marked with the words " Renovated Butter" or " Process But- 
ter" and by such other marks, labels or brands and in such manner as maybe prescribed by the 
Secretary of Agriculture, and no process or renovated butter shall be shipped or transported from 
its place of manufacture into any other State or Territory or the District of Columbia, or to any 
foreign country, until it has been marked as provided in this section. The Secretary of Agricul- 
ture shall make all needful regulations for carrying this section into effect, and shall cause to be 
ascertained and reported from time to time the quantity and quality of process or renovated but- 
ter manufnctured, and the character and the condition of the material from which it is made. 
And he shall also have power to ascertain whether or not materials used in the manufacture of 
said process or renovated butter are deleterious to health or unwholesome in the finished product, 
and in case such deleterious or unwholesome materials are found to be used in product intended for 
exportation or shipment, into other States, or in course of exportation or shipment, he shall have 
power to confiscate the same. Any person, firm, or corporation violating any of the provisions of 
this section shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and on conviction thereof shall be punished 
by a fine of not less than fifty dollars nor more than five hundred dollars or by imprisonment not 
less than one month nor more than six months, or by both said puuishments, in the discretion of 
the court. 

Sec. t>. That wholesale dealers in o'eomargarine. process, renovated, or adulterated butter 
shall keep such books and render such returns in relation thereto as the Commissioner of Internal 
Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may, by regulation, require ; and 



VOTE ON NATIONAL OLEO LAW. 



XV11. 



such books shall be opeu at all times to the inspection of any internal revenue officer or agent. 
And any person who wilfully violates any of the provisions of this section shall for each such 
offense be fined not less than fifty dollars, and not exceeding five hundred dollars, and imprisoned 
not less than thirty days nor more than six months. 

Sec. 7. This Act shall take effect on the first day of July, nineteen hundred and two. 

The following members of the House of Representatives voted for the 
passage of this measure in the 57th Congress, and are therefore entitled to 
the friendship and support of farmers in general : 



CALIFORNIA. 

Frank L. Coombs Napa 

Samuel D. Woods Stockton 

Victor H. Metcalf Oakland 

James McLachlan Pasadena 

James C. Needham Modesto 

COLORADO. 

John F. Shaf roth Denver 

John C. Bell Montrose 

CONNECTICUT. 

E. Stevens Henry Rockville 

Nehemiah D. Sperry New Haven 

Charles A. Russell Killingly 

Ebenezer J. Hill Norwalk 

DELAWARE. 

L. Heister Ball Faulkland 

ILLINOIS. 

George E. Foss Chicago 

Albert J. Hopkins Aurora 

Robert R. Hitt Mount Morris 

George W. Prince Galesburg 

Walter Reeves Streator 

Joseph G. Cannon Danville 

Vespasian Warner Clinton 

Joseph V.Graff Pekin 

J. Ross Mickey Macomb 

Thomas J. Selby Hardin 

Ben F. Caldwell Chatham 

Thomas M. Jett Hillsboro 

Joseph B Crowley Robinson 

James R. Williams Carmi 

Frederick J. Kern Belleville 

George W. Smith Murphysboro 

INDIANA. 

James A. Hemenway Boonville 

Robert W. Mters Bloomington 

William T. Zenor Corydon 

Francis M. Griffith Vevay 

Elias S. Holliday Brazil 

James B. Watson Rushville 

George W Cromer Muncie 

Charles B. Landis . ..Delphi 

James M. Robinson Fort Wayne 

Abraham L. Brick South Bend 

IOWA. 

John N. W. Rumple Marengo 

David B.Henderson Dubuque 

Gilbert N. Haugen Northwood 

Robert G. Cousins Tipton 

John F. Lacey Oskaloosa 

John A. T.Hull Des Moines 

William P. Hepburn Clarinda 

Walter 1. Smith Council Bluffs 

James P. Conner Dennison 

Lot Thomas Storm Lake 

KANSAS. 

Charles Curtis Topeka 

Alfred M.Jackson Winfield 

James M. Miller Council Grove 

Wm. A. Calderhead Mary svi lie 

William A. Reeder Logan 

KENTUCKY. 

D. Linn Gooch Covington 

George G. Gilbert Shelbyville 

LOUISIANA. 
Phanor Breazeale Natchitoches 



MAINE. 

Amos L.Allen Alfred 

Charles E. Littlefield Rockland 

Edwin C. Burleigh Augusta 

Llewellyn Powers Houlton 

MARYLAND. 

William H. Jackson Salisbury 

Albert A. Blakeney Franklinville 

Sydney E. Mudd La Plata 

George A. Pearre Cumberland 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

George P. Lawrence North Adams 

Frederick H. Gillett Springfield 

John R. Thayer Worcester 

Charles Q. Tirrell Natick 

William S. Knox Lawrence 

William H. Moody Haverhill 

Joseph A. Conry Boston 

Samuel L. Powers Newton 

William C. Lovering Taunton 

William S. Greene Fall River 

MICHIGAN. 

Henry C. Smith. .. Adrian 

Washington Gardner Albion 

Edward L. Hamilton Niles 

William Alden Smith Grand Rapids 

Samuel W. Smith Pontiac 

Edgar Weeks Mount Clemens 

Joseph W. Fordney Saginaw 

Roswell P. Bishop Ludington 

Henry H. Aplin West Bay City 

Archibald B. Darragh St. Louis 

MINNESOTA. 

James A. Tawney Winona 

James T. McCleary Mankato 

Joel P. Heatwole Northfield 

Fred C. Stevens St. Paul 

Loren Fletcher Minneapolis 

Page Morris Duluth 

Frank M. Eddy Glenwood 

MISSOURI. 

James T. Lloyd Shelbyville 

John Dougherty Liberty 

Charles F. Cochran St. Joseph 

David A. De Armond Butler 

James Cooney Marshall 

Champ Clark Bowling Green 

Richard Bartholdt St. Louis 

Edward Robb Perryville 

Willard D. Vandiver Cape Girardeau 

Maecenas E. Benton Neosho 

NEBRASKA. 

Elmer J. Burkett . Lincoln 

David H. Mercer Omaha 

John S. Robinson Madison 

William L.Stark Aurora 

Ashcon C. Shallenberger Alma 

Wi lliam Neville North Platte 

NEVADA. 

Francis G. Newlands Reno 

NEW HAMHSHIRE. 

Cyrus A. Sulloway Manchester 

Frank D. Currier Canaan 

NEW JERSEY. 

John J. Gardner.... Atlantic City 

Benjamin F. Howell New Brunswicfk 



xvm. 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



Joshua S. Salmon Boonton 

James F. Stewart Paterson 

Richard Wayne Parker. Newark 

Charles N. Fowler Elizabeth 

NEW YORK. 

Frederic Storm Bay Side, L. I. 

Henry Bristow Brooklyn 

George H. Lindsay Brooklyn 

Nicholas Muller New York 

Arthur S. Tompkins Nyack 

John H. Ketcham Dover Plains 

William M. Draper Lansingburg 

John K. Stewart Amsterdam 

Lucius N. Llttauer New York 

Louis W. Emerson Warrensburg 

Charles L. Knapp Low vi lie 

James S. Sherman Utica 

George W. Ray Norwich 

Michael E. Driscoll... Syracuse 

Sereno E. Payne Auburn 

Charles W. Gillet Addison 

James Breck Perkins Rochester 

De Alva S. Alexander Buffalo 

Edward B. Vreeland Salamanca 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

Edward W. Pou Smithfleld 

John D. Bellamy Wilmington 

Theodore F. Kluttz Salisbury 

Spencer Blackburn Winston 

J ames M. Moody Way nesville 

NORTH DAKOTA. 

Thomas F. Marshall Oakes 

OHIO. 

Robert M. Nevin Dayton 

Robert B. Gordon St. Marys 

John S. Snook Paulding 

Charles Q. Hildebrant Wilmington 

Thomas B. Kyle Troy 

William R. Warnock Urbana 

Stephen Morgan Oak Hill 

Emmett Tompkins Columbus 

James A. Norton Tiffin 

William W. Skiles Shelby 

Henry C. Van Voorhis Zanesville 

Joseph J.Gill Steubenville 

John VV. Cassingham Coshocton 

Robert W. Tayler Lisbon 

Charles Dick Akron 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Galusha A. Grow Glenwood 

Robert H. Foerderer Philadelphia 

Henry H. Bingham Philadelphia 

Edward Morrell Philadelphia 

Thomas S. Butler West Chester 

Irving P. Wanger Norristown 

Howard Mutchler Easton 

Henry D. Green Reading 

H. Burd Cassel Lancaster 

The vote in favor of the bill in 

CALIFORNIA. 

Thomas R. Bard, Rep Ventura 

George C. Perkins, Rep San Francisco 

CONNECTICUT. 

Joseph R. Hawley, Rep Hartford 

Orville H. Piatt, Rep Meriden 

ILLINOIS. 

Shelby M. Cullom,Rep Springfield 

William E. Mason, Rep Chicago 

INDIANA. 

Albert J. Beveridge, Rep Indianapolis 

Charles W. Fairbanks, Rep Indianapolis 

IOWA. 

Jonathan P. Dolliver, Rep Fort Dodge 

William B. Allison, Rep Dubuque 



Henry W. Palmer Wilkesbarre 

George R. Patterson Ashland 

Marlin E. Olmsted Harrisburg 

Charles Fred. Wright Susquehanna 

Elias Deemer Williamsport 

Rufus K.Polk Danville 

Thaddeus M. Mahon Chambersburg 

Robert J. Lewis York 

Alvin Evans Ebensburg 

Summers M.Jack Indiana 

Ernest F. Acheson Washington 

Joseph B. Sho waiter Chicora 

Arthur L. Bates Meadville 

Joseph C. Sibley.... Franklin 

James K. P. Hall Ridgway 

OREGON. 

Malcom A. Moody The Dalles 

Thomas H. Tongue Hillsboro 

SOUTH DAKOTA. 

Eben W. Martin Deadwood 

Charles H. Burke Pierre 

TENNESSEE. 

Walter P. Brownlow Jonesboro 

Henry R. Gibson Knoxville 

UTAH. 

George Sutherland Salt Lake City 

VERMONT. 

David J. Foster Burlington 

Kittredge Haskins Brattleboro 

VIRGINIA. 

William A. Jones.. Warsaw 

John Lamb Richmond 

Peter J. Otey Lynchburg 

James Hay Madison 

John F. Rixey Brandy 

William F. Rhea Bristol 

WASHINGTON. 

Wesley L.Jones Yakima 

Francis W. Cushman Tacoma 

WEST VIRGINIA. 

Blackburn B. Dovener Wheeling 

Alston G. Day ton Philippi 

WISCONSIN. 

Henry A. Cooper Racine 

Herman B. Dahle Mount Horeb 

Joseph W. Babcock Necedah 

Theobold Otjen Milwaukee 

Samuel S. Barney West Bend 

James H. Davidson Oshkosh 

John J. Esch La Crosse 

Edward Minor Sturgeon Bay 

Webster E. Brown Rhineland 

John J.Jenkins Chippewa Falls 

the Senate was as follows : 

KANSAS. 

Joseph R. Burton, Rep Abilene 

William A. Harris, Pop Linwood 

KENTUCKY. 

William J. Deboe, Rep Marion 

MAINE. 

William P. Frye, Rep Lewiston 

Eugene Hale, Rep Ellsworth 

MARYLAND. 

Louis E. McComas, Rep Hagerstown 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

George F. Hoar, Rep Worcester 

Henry Cabot Lodge, Rep Nahant 

MICHIGAN. 

James McMillan, Rep Detroit 

Julius C. Burrows, Rep Kalamazoo 



VOTE ON NATIONAL OLEO LAW. 



XIX. 



MINNESOTA. 

Knute Nelson, Rep Alexandria 

Moses E. Clapp, Rep St. Paul 

MISSOURI. 

Francis M. Cockrell, Item Warrensburg 

NEBRASKA. 

Joseph H. Millard, Rep Omaha 

Charles H. Dietrich, Rep Hastings 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

Henry E. Burnham, Rep Manchester 

Jacob H. Gallinger, Rep Concord 

NEW JERSEY. 

John Kean, Rep Elizabeth 

NEW YORK. 

Chauncey M. Depew, Rep New York 

Thomas C. Piatt, Rep Owego 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

Jeter C. Pritchard, Rep Marshall 

NORTH DAKOTA. 

Porter McCumber, Jr.. Rep Wahpeton 

Henry C. Hansbrough, Rep Devils Lake 



OHIO. 

Marcus A. Hanna, Rep Cleveland 

Joseph B. Foraker, Rep Cincinnati 

OREGON. 

John H. Mitchell, Rep Portland 

Joseph Simon, Rep, Portland 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Matthew S. Quay. Rep Beaver 

Boies Penrose, Rep Philadelphia 

SOUTH DAKOTA. 

Robert J. Gamble, Rep Yankton 

Alfred B. Kittredge, Rep Sioux Falls 

UTAH. 

Thomas Kearns, Rep Salt Lake City 

VERMONT. 

Redfield Proctor, Rep Proctor 

William P. Dillingham, Rep Montpelier 

WASHINGTON. 

Addison G. Foster, Rep Tacoma 

WISCONSIN. 

Joseph V. Quarles, Rep Milwaukee 

John C. Spooner, Rep Hudson 



The following United States Senators voted against the passage of 
the bill : 



ALABAMA. 

John T. Morgan, Dem Selma 

Edmund W. Pettus, Dem Selma 

ARKANSAS. 

James H. Berry, Dem Bentonville 

James K. Jones, Dem Washington 

COLORADO. 

Thomas M. Patterson, Dem Denver 

Henry M. Teller, Dem Central City 

FLORIDA. 

James P. Taliaferro, Dem Jacksonville 

Stephen R. Mallory, Dem Pensacola 

GEORGIA. 

Augustus O. Bacon, Dem Macon 

Alexander S. Clay, Dem Marietta 

IDAHO. 

Frederick T. Dubois, Fus Blackf oot 

Henry Heitfeld, Pop Lewiston 

KENTUCKY. 

Joseph C. S. Blackburn, Dem Versailles 

LOUISIANA. 

Murphy J. Foster, Dem Franklin 

Samuel D. McEnery , Dem New Orleans 

MARYLAND. 
George L. Wellington, Rep Cumberland 

MISSISSIPPI. 

Anselm J. McLaurin, Dem Brandon 

Hernando DeSoto Money. Dem Carrol Ron 

MISSOURI. 
George G, Vest, Dem KamsasCity 



MONTANA. 

William A. Clark, Dem ..Butte 

Paris Gibson, Dem Great Falls 

NEVADA. 

William M. Stewart, Sil Carson City 

John P. Jones, Sil Gold Hill 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

F. McL. Simmons, Dem Raleigh 

RHODE ISLAND. 

George P. Wetmore, Rep .- Newport 

Nelson W. Aldrich, Rep Providence 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Benjamin R. Tillman, Dem Trenton 

John L. McLaurin, Dem Bennettsville 

TENNESSEE. 

Edward W. Carmack, Dem Memphis 

William B. Bate, Dem Nashville 

TEXAS. 

Joseph W. Bailey, Dem Gainsville 

Charles A. Culberson, Dem Dallas 

UTAH. 

Joseph L. Rawlins, Dem Salt Lake City 

VIRGINIA. 

Thomas S. Martin, Dem Scottsville 

John W. Daniel, Dem Lynchburg 

WASHINGTON. 

George Turner, Sil Spokane 

WEST VIRGINIA. 

Stephen B. Elkins. Rep Elkins 

Nathan B. Scott, Rep Wheeling 

WYOMING. 

Francis E. Warren, Rep Cheyenne 

Clarence D. Clark, Rep Evanston 




HON. W. D. HOARD. 



THE PATRON AND THE CREAMERY. 



BY HON. W. D. HOARD, EX-GOVERNOR OP WISCONSIN, PRESIDENT OP THE 
NATIONAL DAIRY UNION AND EDITOR OP ''HOARD'S DAIRYMAN." 

Fort Atkinson, Wis. 

The real foundation of the creamery business is the patron. The first 
chief care should be to so equip the patron with knowledge and under- 
standing concerning his share of the work that he may make the largest 
profit possible. A very large proportion of the creamery patrons make the 
serious mistake of supposing that their profits must somehow come from the 
creamery end rather than the farm end. They are all the time looking at 
the price paid for making the butter, thinking the great expense lies there. 
This is not true. The real and most serious expense lies at the farm end 
in producing the milk, and getting it to the creamery. There seems to be 
a most serious lack of knowledge and study concerning the best economy 
and methods of producing milk; concerning the right kind of cows that shall 
produce milk in sufficient abundance to make the cost low per cow; concern- 
ing the right methods of field and stable management so that the cow can do 
her best; concerning farm management in producing the right crops and so 
handling them that they shall stimulate milk secretion to the largest ad- 
vantage; concerning the science of feeding, how to compound a ration that 
is adapted to milk production. All these points require reading and study, 
and every creamery should be a dairy school where the patrons may take 
advantage of their co-operation together to increase their knowledge. 

How many creameries are there of that sort in the country ? But very 
few. A prominent creamery company, comprising over one hundred 
creameries, keeps an expert dairy farmer to travel from one creamery to 
another instructing the farmers on all these points to the best of his ability. 
Some of the patrons are quick and anxious to learn. They realize the neces- 
sity of such training and education. They purchase books and papers that 
treat of these questions, and it is a fact that their profits per cow are many 
times greater than those of their neighbors, in the same creamery, who place 
no value on such knowledge and study. But few, comparatively, realize 
the tremendous difference and increase in profits which such intelligence 
brings. 

I will give one illustration taken from the Hoard Creameries at Fort 
Atkinson, Wis. To one patron, who has a herd of nineteen cows, was paid 

1 



2 THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 

$65 per cow for the year, for the cream in his milk, the skim-milk being re- 
turned to him. The cost of keeping was $35 per cow. This left him a profit 
of $30 per cow. To another patron in the same creamery, was paid $35 per 
cow. The cost of keeping his cows was $30 per cow. He received $5 per 
cow profit. The first patron received six hundred per cent, more of net 
profit than the second man. The milk of both was taken by the Babcook 
test, and the butter of both sold at the same price. This tremendous differ- 
ence in profits lay at the farm end of the business, and not at the creamery. 
The first patron was a reading, thinking man who kept his mind at constant 
study on all the points we have mentioned. The second patron did not 
believe in such things, and he lost $25 per cow for his way of thinking. When 
he came to compare his ideas and methods with the first patron, he made up 
his mind that it did not pay to despise dairy knowledge and a better educa- 
tion in the things that so closely belonged to his business. 

This leads us to suggest that every creamery should prepare a yearly 
report setting forth the name of each patron; the number of cows in his 
herd, and the cost of their yearly keeping; whether a silo was used or not; 
the pounds of milk and the butter yield per cow; the average price at which 
the butter sold for the year, and the amount received in cash per cow for each 
dollar spent in feed. Such a report would show each patron at once just 
what his neighbor's cows were earning, by which he could compare his own 
work and see whether his ideas were as profitable as they should be, or not. 
Such a system of reporting would act as a great stimulus to thousands of 
dairy farmers, and result, we believe, in great benefit to the creamery. What 
every man needs is a comparative knowledge of the dairy facts about him, 
and such a report would yield that knowledge. Shut up within our own 
line fences, we "measure ourselves by ourselves," and so continue to confirm 
ourselves in mistaken ideas and methods. 

As useful as is the creamery, it is productive of some bad effects on the 
minds of certain farmers who patronize it. To illustrate: In 1885, there 
-were over one thousand dairy farmers in Jefferson County, Wis., who were 
making butter and selling it on commission in Chicago and other cities. 
They were thus brought sharply in contact with the demands of the market, 
and the market was forcing them every day up to a higher and more profit- 
able plane of dairy management. These men were consequently anxious 
to learn all that was necessary to know about cows and their proper 
handling. Their minds were constantly being broadened and brightened 
by their immediate relation to a very exacting market. 

Now, the creamery has come and. to a certain extent, has stepped in 
between them and the market, so that they do not as clearly see their own 
responsibility to the quality and price of the butter as they did before. The 
consequence is that many of these men have grown careless and indifferent 
to their own improvement. Their standard of dairy farming has been low- 
ered and they are not as successful handlers of cows as they were in 1885. 

This is a most serious mistake, for every man is in reality just as much 



THE PATRON AND THE CREAMERY. 3 

responsible for the final result, as he was twenty years ago. This shows 
that the creamery proprietors and managers should make especial effort to 
promote dairy education and knowledge of best methods, in order to counter- 
act this tendency to lax effort. Every patron should look upon his relation 
to the creamery in the light that he is a partner. What is needed in every 
creamery is a strong central tone of public sentiment that shall tend to the 
promotion of intelligence and improvement along dairy lines. 

We believe most thoroughly in the creamery, but we want it to act as a 
stimulant to dairy improvement and progress. There are dangers, as well 
as blessings, in its path. We have seen old dairy districts in the State of 
New York decline in fertility of the soil, and a true spirit of progress among 
its farmers, to the extent that farms that s»ld for $100 an acre, thirty years 
ago, can be bought to-day for $2,"> to $30. ' This fearful loss came because 
the farmers gave themselves up to indifference as to their own dairy knowl- 
edge and improvement. A bright, intelligent set of patrons in any creamery 
always insures honesty and good management. Such men will be satisfied 
with nothing less. Dairy education has benefited the creamery operator 
more than the patrons. Consequently the creamery end is kept up square 
with the best modern judgment, to a larger degree than is the farm end. As 
a rule, the buttermaker does his share of the work better than the milk pro- 
ducer. This is because he has put himself in contact with the best modern 
thought on dairy matters to a much larger degree than has the patron. It 
is the patron who really makes the butter; the creamery only separates it, 
and puts it on the market. Certainly there is as great need for sound 
knowledge, intelligent, up-to-date methods and the spirit of true American 
progress among the patrons, as with the buttermakers. 

A broader, more just view of the true relations of the patron to the 
creamery has always resulted in greatly increasing the profits, as well as the 
harmony and success of both patron and the creamery operator. 



"Let me be no assistant for a state, 
But keep a farm." — Shakespeare. 



"And joy to him, who o'er his task, 
Remembers toil is nature's plan ; 

Who, working, thinks — and never sinks 
His independence as a man." 

— Mackay. 



BUILDING UP A DAIRY HERD, WITH SUGGESTIONS ON 
MIDSUMMER FORAGE CROPS. 



BY PROF. F. C. CURTISS, DIRECTOR AND AGRICULTURIST, IOWA AGRICUL- 
TURAL, EXPERIMENT STATION. 



Ames, Iowa. 



The primary problem in dairy progress is the cow. The success of the 
dairy industry in any locality must depend primarily on the dairy cow and 
her management. Marked advance has been made in recent years in 
the improvement of facilities and methods for perfecting our dairy products 
but the cow is still the source of supply of the raw material. It is the func- 
tion of the creamery and dairy to convert the raw material into finished 

products of the highest degree 
of excellence; but the cow pre- 
cedes the factory. The process 
of butter production supple- 
ments milk production. In- 
ferior cows mean loss to the 
owner and failure to the fac- 
tory. 

By reason of the improve- 
ments made in creamery 
methods and appliances, the cow 
is a much less important factor 
than formerly in determining 
the quality of the product, pro- 
vided the milk is obtained in 
wholesome condition. The but- 
termaker is now conceded to have more to do with this than the cow. In 
computing the profit and loss, however, we are compelled to reckon with 
the cow first, last and all the time. In this feature the cow is a greater 
factor than ever before. 

Two years ago I spent a couple of days attending the annual exhibition 
of the Royal Agricultural Society of Jersey Island. This exhibition is a 
Jersey cattle show. All the cattle on the island are Jerseys. As I studied 
my catalogue, I noted the frequency of the occurrence of a particular sire 

5 




GOLDIE S TORMENT. 
Champion Aged Bull at the Iowa and Minnesota State 
Fairs, 1900, When 12 Years Old; Also First Prize on 
Get of Sire at Both Fairs. 



BUILDING UP A DAIRY HERD. 7 

in the pedigrees of the prize winners. I was struck with the uniformity and 
excellency of this bull's progeny. After the judging was completed, I said 
to one of the judges: "Where is this bull, Golden Fern's Lad?" "That 
bull," said Mr. Nicole, "was sold for export to England last year, and the 
cattle interests of the island lost fully £10,000 ($50,000) when he left." 

I there saw one of the most striking demonstrations of the potency and 
value of a superior sire that it has ever been my privilege to witness. This 
strain of blood has since been in universal demand among the best breeders 
of both continents. 

The task of building up a dairy herd whether pure bred or for practical 
production, must begin with the sire. This is the fundamental problem 
of the breeder. The development of superior herds is generally a record of 
the strength and potency of good sires. Without this all other efforts will fail. 
There are but few dairy sires of outstanding excellence, and comparatively 
few among domestic animals of any kind. 

The primary problem and the life long study of the great breeders of 
all times has been a study of sires. Successful sires are more rare among 
dairy cattle than among any other kind of stock, unless it be high speed 
horses. Both are highly artificial creations. Nature's laws operate with 
less certainty in the more delicately organized animals of nervous tempera- 
ment, where excellence depends on performance, than where heredity is 
more a matter of form and substance, as in meat producing animals and draft 
horses. 

There are many qualities to be considered in the dairy sire. These 
qualities are never fully apparent in the animal itself, but must be sought 
and studied in the ancestry. One of the first essentials is a good mother. 
This alone is by no means conclusive evidence of inherited excellence, but 
a sire should never be without a strong line of maternal ancestry. Concen- 
tration of good blood and individual excellence is the surest means of its 
perpetuation. First among the characteristics sought in a good sire ,1 would 
look to the head. I presume many will take exception to this and place 
constitution first, but the head reveals constitution, almost as accurately 
as do depth and width of thorax and fullness of heart girth. Next to the 
udder I regard the head as the most expressive character of the dairy cow, as 
well as the chief significance in the dairy bull. 

The more we study the best types of domestic animals and the more 
we study the work and the products of the great breeders, the more we are 
forced to recognize the head as of chief significance in revealing the inherent 
quality and practical value of animal excellence. The head is, in a sense, 
a mirror reflecting all that goes to make up the animal. The successful 
sire must have a bull's head. It must be strong, masculine, full of character 
and vigor. It must be broad between the eyes and clean cut and well 
defined. The eyes must stand out full and prominent. 

The head is sometimes classed among the points of fancy, but it is more 
than this. It indicates vitality, strength, breed type, and nerve force; all 




^f- •' ■ - ■■ '''''•■'^•-■•'- ■■■•c-'J 



BUILDING UP A DAIRY HERD. 9 

of which are essential to a prepotent sire. A sire must descend from a 
strong line of good ancestors, but he must have more than this, he must 
present unmistakable evidence in his make up of having inherited from these 
ancestors in a marked degree the qualities and characteristics that are sought 
for reproduction. 

, Depth and spring of rib, indicating feeding capacity, necessarily rank 
among the characteristics of prime importance in either the sire or the dam. 
There should be no bad udders in the ancestry back of the bull. This is 
one of the first requisites of a good dairy sire. There is now and then a good 
dairy cow with a defective udder; but they are rare and a strictly good, 
well balanced udder is almost aways a certain indication of good perform- 
ance at the pail, no matter what breed or type it accompanies. The men 
who have bred dairy cattle longest and most successfully, are the most exact- 
ing about the udder. 

The dairy sire should always be selected from a cow of outstanding ex- 
cellence and from a long line of such ancestry on both sides. No inherent 
weakness should be tolerated in the ancestors that enter into the pedigree. 
Under no circumstances should a sire be used from a cow having a defective 
udder, or a weak constitution, or a lack of feeding capacity. Among the 
points of excellence sought in the cow, I should place constitution first, 
dairy quality or function, as indicated by the head, udder and form, sec- 
ond; breed type and character, third. It is not well to depart too much 
in cither direction from the established standard of size or from the prevail- 
ing or most popular type. Animals of extreme variation are not likely to 
reproduce desirable characteristics. An unusual degree of coarseness can 
better be tolerated in the cow than in the sire. Attractiveness is desirable, but 
style, finish and beauty must not be sought at the expense of utility. The 
tendency to recognize one type for the show ring and another for type utility 
and profitable production, cannot but result injuriously to any breed. It 
is difficult enough to breed domestic animals successfully to one type or 
standard of excellence, instead of striving for two distinct standards. Quali- 
ties that make a cow a profitable producer, should have first consideration 
in building up a dairy herd. These qualities should be carefully and per- 
sistently sought and every possible effort exerted to perpetuate and in- 
tensify them. There are always radical departures from the highest type 
of animals in all classes. This is particularly true in the dairy breeds. 

One of the common and most serious mistakes is made in the 
supposition that animals have excellence because they belong to a particular 
breed or family. There are no dairy herds in existence, no matter how care- 
fully or intelligently bred, that do not need to be rigidly selected, and all 
the culls and inferior animals rejected. There is such a small percentage of 
the males of the dairy breeds used for sires that there is no occasion for 
using any but the best; yet there are many animals used of ordinary 
individual merit and very inferior ancestry. It is better in most cases 



10 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



to use an aged sire that has been tried and proven his merit than art 
untried sire of doubtful prepotency. The greatest problem in breeding is the 
selection of the sire, whether it be for the improvement of a grade herd, or 
the upbuilding of a registered herd of the pure breeds. 

As a rule it is better to breed the cows that make up the dairy herd 
than to depend upon buying them. There are comparatively few good 
dairy cows for sale, and except in case of dispersion sales, the best cows of 
a herd can seldom be bought at a reasonable price. The policy in breeding 
should be to test regularly and reject all that do not measure up to a high 
standard after they have been given a thorough trial. The selection should 




COLLEGE MOORE-SHOKTHORN. 
Yearly Butter Record, 474 Pounds; Net Profit, $81.60. 

be based upon actual results at the pail, rather than points of fancy or 
form. It is a pretty safe policy to select cows upon performance. There 
are some exceptions to this rule, but in general the cow that is a good pro- 
ducer will conform closely to the accepted dairy type and form. 

The ideal dairy type and form also admits of considerable flexibility 
and it is not advisable to adhere too rigidly to established- types, provided 
better results could be obtained by a slight departure in some instances. 
The best dairy heifers will almost invariably come from the very best cows 
of the herd; but it is seldom that all of the heifers from any cow will be good 



BUILDING VV A DAIRY HERD. 



11 



enough to be retained in the herd. The offspring of even the very best bred 
ancestry needs to be subjected to rigid selection. The only way to do this' 
intelligently is to actually know what every cow in the herd is capable of 
producing, and to apply the same test to the heifers as soon as they come 
into milk. It is not always advisable to reject a heifer from the results of 
the test made during her first period of lactation. The inferior animals 
of defective udder, or seriously defective form, can easily be culled out by 
the first test; but those of less prominent defects sometimes need to be re- 
tained longer, and in some instances heifers that promise well during the 
first period of lactation do not fulfill this promise by subsequent development. 




COLLEGE LILY- ABERDEEN-ANGUS. 
Yearly Butter Record, 387 Pounds; Net Profit, $46.16. 



The feeding and general management of a dairy herd are an important 
factor in the results attained by the dairy herd. Excellence of breeding 
and inherited dairy function, may be set at naught by improper methods. 
Many cows never milk well because they never have a chance, and are never 
properly fed for milk production. If the same kindly treatment and con- 
stant attention bestowed upon the dairy cattle of the Channel Islands and 
Holland and Denmark, could be given to the dairy herds of our country, it 
would, in a great majority of cases, lead to double the present production. 
The modern dairy cow is a highly organized, sensitive, and artificial crea- 



12 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



tion. To subject her to lack of feed, exposure and neglect, common in so 
many herds, means a loss of practically all that has been gained by good 
breeding. Feed, comfort, care and breeding combined are the only means 
of bringing our dairy herds to the standard of excellence that must be main- 
tained to make them profitable on the high-priced land of the Mississippi 
valley. 

MIDSUMMER FORAGE CROPS 

FOR THE DAIRY HERD. 

The impression exists in'the minds of some that as farm lands advance 
in value, the pasture and grass lands must largely diminish. 



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SYLVIA.-R.ED POLL. 
Yearly Butter Record, 301 Pounds; Net Profit, $34.13. 

The idea that lands become too high priced to grow grass and forage 
products profitably is erroneous. Relief must be sought in better grass 
and more of it, rather than in diminished grazing areas. Grass lands are 
often unprofitable, not because they are high priced but because they 
are neglected. The intensive system of agriculture can nowhere be ap- 
plied with better returns than to the grass lands. The matter of secur- 
ing a uniform supply of good feed for the dairy herd throughout the year 
is of prime importance. Careful breeding and inherited excellence may 
be set at naught by insufficient or unsuitable feed, even for a brief period. 



MIDSUMMER FORAGE CROPS. 13 

The successful dairyman will carefully provide in advance for the feed 
supply during every month of the year. Too frequently provision is made 
only for the winter months. The severest test sometimes comes in mid- 
summer rather than in midwinter, when the tendency appears to be to 
trust to chance and let the dairy cow take the season's feed supply as it 
comes. The milk supply of the average creamery falls off more rapidly 
on pasture in "dog days" than in midwinter. Milk yield lost by the herd 
at any season of the year can never be fully regained. The entire sub- 
sequent yield during any period of lactation will be mainly governed by 
the extent of the decline during an unfavorable period. The dairy cow 
and likewise the daily herd that makes the best yield must have no ad- 
verse periods at any time. It is the evenly sustained yield rather than 
the sudden spurt that determines the year's total. The best record made 
by any cow in the college dairy herd last year, age and all things considered, 
was that of a four year old. Her yield of butter during the first three 
months, beginning April 1st, was 146 pounds, during the second three 
months 109 pounds ) during the third, 101 pounds, and during the last 
three months, 93 pounds, making a total of 448 pounds in twelve months. 
To have allowed this cow through neglect or insufficient feed to decline 
30 or 40 pounds during July and August, would have caused irreparable 
loss and probably cut the year's record short 100 pounds. Instead of that, 
she was provided with green forage crops and given a moderate grain ration 
and made a net profit of $77.41. 

The first step in providing the summer's feed supply should be to 
strengthen the pasture. The way to have grass is to let it grow. The 
pasture should never be bare. A rich carpeting of grass conserves moist- 
ure in mid-summer and protects vitality of the plant in winter. It insures 
a constant and economical feed supply. It furnishes the basis of the best 
and most economical ration obtainable. Properly supplemented with 
green forage crops fed in a cool dark stable during the day from July 15th 
to September loth, giving the cows the run of the pasture only at night, 
pasture grass furnishes the cheapest and best dairy ration the farm affords. 

The problem, as our lands become more valuable, will be not how 
to do with less grass, but how to get more of it. Pasture lands may become 
worn out or more properly what is termed "run out," quite as readily and 
completely as tillable lands. No part of the farm will yield better returns 
for careful attention and good treatment than the pasture. Some simple 
experiments conducted in the Iowa College farm pastures have furnished 
striking results in favor of pasture culture. The application of ten quarts 
of clover seed per acre, disced and harrowed into blue grass pasture in 
the early spring increased the yield 65 per cent, over pastures immediately 
adjoining that receiving no treatment. Pasture land thus treated pro- 
duces a heavier, denser growth, and better variety of grasses, and stands 
drouth better and the improvement extends over several seasons. This 
treatment should be alternated with top dressing, applied preferably during 



14 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



the fall or winter, followed with the harrow in the spring. The best pas- 
tures are those that are never disturbed by the plow. The English gar- 
dener's directions for making a lawn apply to pasture. His instructions 
were to prepare the ground very carefully, sow the seed, and then water and 
mow it, and water and mow it, for 400 years. 

However good the pastures may be, there are times when they must 
be supplemented with forage crops and grain rations to maintain the dairy 
herd in good flow of milk, and the poorer the pastures the greater the 
necessity. The earliest of the green forage crops is rye and it affords a 
generous supply of good feed although it comes at a time when the feed 




BELLE— GRADE SHORTHORN. 
Ten Month's Record. 339 Pounds Butter; Net Profit, $35.4U. 

supply is usually quite sufficient for the time being. The use of rye in 
the early spring makes it possible to hold in reserve a larger surplus of grass 
for midsummer. It can be sown in the corn fields after the last plowing 
and in most seasons it will afford a good supply of green feed after the corn 
crop has been secured in the fall. This practice tends to eradicate weeds 
and renovate the soil. 

First among the soiling crops for midsummer and early autumn, I 
would place sorghum. Its hardiness, vigor of growth, abundant yield and 
adaptation to our soil place it among the most reliable and profitable crops 



MIDSUMMER FORAGE CROPS. 



15 



of the farm, regardless of drouth or other abnormal climatic conditions. 
Any part of the crop not needed for summer feeding in the green state can 
be cured in the form of excellent winter fodder. It may be sown any time 
after the season opens until as late as August 1st. The latter date is rather 
late, but it may often be sown after a crop of wheat, barley or early oats 
have been taken from the field. The yield from the Iowa Experiment 
Station fields has been as high as 29 tons per acre of green fodder and ten 
tons of fairly well cured fodder. About 100 pounds of seed per acre should 
be sown to give the best quality of fodder. The yield is practically the same 
regardless of the quantity of seed sown within the limit of 40 to 120 pounds. 




IDEAL'S PRIDE— AN UNPROFITABLE DAIRY COW. 

Yearly Butter Record, 128 Pounds; Net Loss, $1.07. 



Next to sorghum, as a forage crop for midsummer feeding in Iowa, 
I should place the soy bean. This plant does not yield as heavily as sorghum, 
yet it is a hardy, vigorous grower and has better drouth resisting qual- 
ities. During the intense heat and drouth of the past summer, both of 
these crops stood the conditions perfectly and yielded well. The soy bean 
produces a crop of grain as well as forage. It may be used for green feed 
during the summer months to good advantage, or it may be allowed to 
ripen beans and be thrashed for winter feeding. A good crop yields from 
25 to 30 bushels of beans per acre. It is a rich, highly concentrated feed, 



16 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

and constitutes an excellent adjunct to the ordinary grain ration. One or 
the chief advantages of the soy bean in addition to its drouth resisting 
qualities is that it constitutes a feed very rich in protein. On this account 
it is well adapted to combining 'with sorghum and our ordinary farm feeds. 
Protein can be produced much more economically by growing soy beans 
than by buying oil meal, bran or cottonseed meal at prevailing prices. Soy 
beans constitutes an excellent feed for the dairy cow or for young and grow- 
ing stock of all kinds. It is also a good fattening ration. On account of 
its high percentage of protein, it is likely to become quite extensively grown 
in the corn belt states, to furnish nutrients required to balance the corn 
crop. 

In considering forage crops either for green or dry feeding, sweet corn 
should have a prominent place. It constitutes one of our best yielding 
and most nutritious feeds for midsummer and early autumn. Sweet corn 
fodder does not keep as well as held corn, but it furnishes an excellent 
substitute for failing pastures after the middle of August until the close 
of the season. The larger growing varieties, such as Stowell's Evergreen 
are preferable on account of the abundant feed produced. 

A combination of green sorghum, soy beans and sweet corn furnishes 
an ideal soiling crop ration. Add to this from two to four pounds of bran 
or meal per head daily and the milk yield may be well maintained 
during a period when it ordinarily falls off very heavily. Among the gen- 
eral forage crops of the farm, rape is entitled to take rank as one of the best. 
Its utility, however, is principally as a feed for sheep and hogs. Cattle do 
not take to it readily and if dairy cows were forced to use too much of it, 
it would unfavorably affect the quality of the dairy products. 

In order to get the best' results from any system of feeding or grazing, 
it is necessary to give attention to the comfort as well as the feeding of the 
cow. Protection from flies and the intense heat is of the utmost importance. 
During the severest heat period, the cows should graze only at night and 
be kept in a cool, darkened stable during the day. This plan has been prac- 
ticed for a number of years with the college dairy herd and there is a marked 
difference between the regularity of the milk yield of the college herd and 
the herds of the patrons of the college creamery. At the approach of cool 
weather, about the middle of September, the herd may be again turned 
out during the day and should be stabled at night as soon as frosty nights 
appear. Next to scant supply of feed, nothing contracts the milk of the 
dairy herd like cold. The cows should be housed in dry, comfortable, 
well bedded quarters in all raw and chilly weather as well as in severe 
winter. 



SELECTION OF COWS. 



BY C. P. GOODRICH, DAIRYMAN, 

Fort Atkinson, Wis. 

The men who attain the highest success in any business always use the 
implements or machines that are best adapted to their business. 

The farmer who makes milk production his business is a dairyman, and 
he needs the best of dairy cows. The best dairy cows are those that will 
return the most value of milk for the food consumed. The dairy cow is a 
machine for converting the forage raised on the farm and pwhaps other 
foods into money by producing milk, butter and cheese. 

For the patron of a creamery or maker of dairy butter the best cow is 
the one that will produce the most butterfat in a year for a given amount of 
feed. It is the same with the patron of a cheese factory. 

SELECTING FROM ONE'S OWN HERD. 

For the farmer who has a herd of cows, perhaps a sufficient number to 
stock his farm, his "selection" should commence with his own herd by weed- 
ing out and disposing of his poorest ones. 

Many farmers, and, in fact most of them, who are keeping cows have 
some individuals in their herds that do not pay for their feed, and the owner 
does not know it. He has not taken the means to select out those of his 
herd that do pay a profit from those that do not. 

A cow has to be fed a year for which she returns us what milk she gives 
in a year. The only way to tell how well she pays us is to weigh her milk 
every milking, or, at least, at frequent intervals, and test it with the Bab- 
cock test and find out how much butterfat she produces in a year. 

Some may think this involves a great deal of labor, but, with things 
properly arranged, it requires but very little time. With a milk-sheet prop- 
erly ruled, and with the names or numbers of the cows, together with the 
days of the month, placed on it, and a pencil hanging to a string, and a 
spring balance, all conveniently located in the stable where the milking is 
done, the milkers will be able to record the amount of milk each cow gives 
at every milking with the expenditure of but a few seconds of time at each 
milking. Each sheet can be made out for one month. At the end of the 

17 



18 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

month the figures can be footed up, and at the end of the year one can tell 
the exact amount of milk each cow has produced. 

The testing should be done once or twice a month by testing one day's 
milk — both morning's and evening's milk — because the test of the milk is 
liable to vary from time to time, but a test at stated intervals — say the 
middle of each month — and, taking that for the average of the month, will 
approximate, at the end of the year, very closely indeed 'to the actual amount 
of butterfat a cow produces during the year. 

Now when the farmer knows — as he ought to know very closely — as any 
good business man would know — the value of the feed his cows consume and 
the value of the butterfat he furnishes to the creamery he can readily know 
which cows are returning him a profit and which ones he is keeping at a loss. 
It would seem that it ought not to require any argument to convince 
any man of the folly of keeping cows that did not pay in milk for the food 
they consumed, yet some men are constantly doing it and refuse to enlighten 
themselves as to which cows are boarding on them without paying for it. 
I have in mind now a man whom I had been urging to take this means 
of finding out which cows in his herd were not paying for their keep, and he 
answered me by saying: "I won't do it. I'm afraid I should find too many 
poor cows, and if I should dispose of all that did not pay, then what should 
I do for cows?" Of course, argument is wasted on such a man and I said 
no more. 

Some men think they know without weighing and testing the milk of 
the individual cows of the herd which are the best ones, but they can only 
guess at it, and are frequently grievously mistaken. I know this was the 
case with me. Before the Babcock test was invented, the best I could do 
was to weigh the milk, which I did once in a while, and thought I knew 
something of the value of the different cows. 

As soon as Mr. Babcock brought out his milk test I bought one, and it 
revealed to me some startling facts. Some cows, which I had supposed were 
my best ones, .1 was glad to dispose of, while some that I had barely toler- 
ated on my farm were really the most profitable ones. 

One instance I will relate: I had a large cow that was a hearty feeder, 
we called Whitie, which my hired man milked; and another medium size, 
called "Beauty," which I milked. The hired man used to say, when milking 
"Whitie," when fresh and getting a large pail brimming full at a milking: 
"If you only had a whole herd of cows like 'Whitie,' you would make lots 
of money." Then, as he looked at the scant half pailful that I got from my 
cow, he would say: "I don't see why you keep such a cow as 'Beauty' is. 
It must be to look at; she don't give enough milk to pay." 

But the Babcock test came, and I got some milk scales and went to work 
to weigh and test the milk for a year. "Whitie" started with 50 pounds 
a day, but it soon began to drop off, and, after a while, she began to fatten 
up and finally went dry some three months; and, notwithstanding her great 
pretensions to begin with, she gave but 6,000 pounds during the year. Still, 



SELECTION OF COWS. 19 

the amount of milk was very good, but the Babcock test revealed a very 
disappointing fact. The test averaged but 3%, which made 180 pounds of 
butterfat, which would make 210 pounds of butter. 

"Beauty" never gave over 25 pounds a day but kept up her flow well 
so that, at the end of the year, it footed up a little over 5,000 pounds with 
an average test of 6.5°o, which made 325 pounds of butterfat or 380 pounds 
of butter. She made 170 pounds more than "Whitie" on less feed. 

Of course, "Whitie" had to go when she came fresh again. The man 
who looked at nothing, when buying cows, but a large frame and an im- 
mense udder, that denoted a large quantity of milk at the time of purchase, 
bought her. But "Beauty" stayed on my farm for ten years after that, 
giving me net profit, above the cost of feed, of from 35 to 50 dollars a year, 
besides leaving with me many of her descendants which were excellent cows. 
When I sold her on account of age, she did not bring much, but, after all, 
I thought I had good reason to be satisfied with her. 

Had I kept "Whitie" a like numberof years, her butter would probably, 
judging from that one year's record, have just about paid for her feed; and her 
female descendants would have stood a great chance of being inferior, as 
dairy cows, to "Beauty's" descendants. There is no question in my mind 
that "Beauty," in that ten years, paid me at least §400 more than "Whitie" 
or a cow like her could have done. 

SELECTING COWS TO BUY. 

When one wishes to buy cows to take the place of some weeded out, or 
to increase his herd, or to start a new herd, a different problem presents 
itself. He cannot have the year's record for the reason that those who have 
cows to sell have not kept a record of individual cows ; or, if they have, they 
have too much business sense to sell off their best cows. It is of no vise to 
ask the seller which are his good cows, for he will tell you they are all good, 
and, besides, he does not know himself, because he has never made a yearly 
test. It is of but little use to see the cow milked and take a sample and test 
it. One can learn but very little from one milking what a cow will do for 
a year. 

Therefore there remains but one thing to do, and that is for the buyer 
to use his own judgment, being governed entirely by the form of the cow. 
There is a dairy type — a form which indicates dairy ability, which the close 
student of the dairy cow is able to recognize. 

There are cows of dairy type and of good dairy performance in nearly 
all breeds, but they are found more nearly universal among the recognized 
dairy breeds such as Guernsey, Jersey and Holsteins, than among other 
breeds. There is occasionally one of dairy type and a splendid performer 
found among some of the beef breeds; but -they are exceptions to the general 
rule; though good performers themselves, would not be very likely to trans- 
mit first class dairy qualities to their offspring. So it is best to hunt among 



20 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

the dairy breeds, or grades of dairy breeds — those which have been bred 
and used through many generations solely for dairy purposes — when wishing 
to select dairy cows. 

THE DAIRY FORM. 

A good, competent judge, when he goes out to buy a cow, does not ask 
the owner, "Is she a good cow?" "How much milk will she give?" or 
"How much butter will she make?" but he looks her over carefully and 
makes up his mind whether or not she has the right form to be a good 
producer. 

As far as the dairy form is concerned there is not, in my opinion, a differ- 
ent standard for different breeds. Not that the great producers of all 
breeds, or, even of the same breed, are all shaped exactly alike, but all great 
performers, of all breeds, have certain characteristics alike which distinguish 
them as dairy animals. 

Now I do not claim that a man, even though he may be the very best 
judge, can, with unerring certainty, select a good dairy cow every time, for 
there may be some defect, in the internal milk machinery, of which there 
is no outward evidence. But, after all, the form is the best guide that an 
expert judge can have. 

It is a very difficult thing to describe on paper the dairy form, but I 
will try as best I can to give my ideas about it. 

The first thing to be looked at is the cow's head. She should have a 
broad forehead with large, full, mild, intelligent looking eyes, and have 
every indication of a strong brain with strong nervous force. Milk produc- 
tion, with the cow, is the result of nervous force, and this nervous force 
starts from the brain and runs along the spinal cord. A strong, rugged 
backbone indicates that it encloses a large, strong spinal cord. Nerves 
branch off from this cord between each of the sections of the backbone. 
And the larger these nerves the more open are these sections, and farther 
apart the ribs. This makes the dairy cow long bodied and having a rather 
loose and relaxed appearance. 

The mouth should be large and the jaws strong and muscular, which 
indicates that she is a good feeder. She should have great depth of body 
showing that she has large capacity for handling and digesting the large 
amount Of food that her strong jawsare able to eat. She should have a broad 
chest and large girth around the heart and plenty of lung capacity. She 
should have a broad, strong loin with hips quite wide apart, with the back- 
bone rising quite high between them. This indicates large room for the 
organs of maternity. 

The thighs should be thin and incurved on the back side, with great 
room between them, and the flank arched up high just in front of them. All 
this to give room for the large fine udder which she must have to be a great 
producer. The udder should extend well forward and well back, making a 
long connection with the body, and having four fairly good-sized teats set 



SELECTION OF COWS. 21 

on well apart. Large, full milk veins that carry the blood from the udder 
to the heart through large "milk-wells" or openings through the walls of the 
chest are indications of a large flow of milk. 

Some other points which good cows usually have, but not always, might 
be mentioned. These are the thin, slim neck, the clean, well cut up throat, 
the thin withers and the long tail. 

A great many men' when judging of a cow's dairy ability are guided 
almost entirely by the udder. If that is large and fine they think she must 
be a good cow, no matter what the form otherwise is. Of course, a good 
udder usually goes with a good dairy form, but not always, and when it does 
not the cow is either a partial or total failure as a dairy cow. A cow may 
have a large udder and give a good quantity of milk for a short time, but, if 
she has not a good dairy form, she has not the machinery to keep on filling 
her udder long enough to make her a profitable cow. More men have been 
deceived by a large udder than by anything else about a cow, because that 
was almost the only feature they looked at. 

The buyer should never fail to examine carefully the udder of every cow 
he thinks of selecting to see that it is sound ; has no paralyzed quarters and 
gives milk easily and freely from all four of her teats. 

SOME FAULTS OF COWS. 

Sometimes an otherwise excellent cow is rendered partially or totally 
worthless for the dairy because of a habit of leaking milk. This fault cannot 
always be detected unless the milk is seen to be leaking. It does not follow 
that because a cow milks easily that she will leak her milk; far from it. 
Still those that do leak usually milk rather easy. Sometimes the milk 
seems to drip away from the teats nearly as fast as it is made and the udder 
is always nearly empty. This makes a cow worthless as a milker but can 
be detected at any time except when she is dry. Other cows do not leak 
until the udder is well distended and she lies down, forcing the milk out in a 
stream and making quite a puddle of milk on the ground or floor. Sometimes 
the close observer will detect this. 

Another fault that some cows have is the habit of sucking other cows, 
or, worse still, of sucking themselves. My advice is never to buy such a cow 
under any circumstances if one can detect the fault. Such a cow may pos- 
sibly be prevented from sucking, but she can never be cured of the inclina- 
tion to do so and will surely be a source of vexation. 

If the cow you are looking at has a ring in her nose, or has her nose 
pierced for a ring, don't buy her. That was done for something, and prob- 
ably in a vain attempt to prevent her from sucking. If she has her tongue 
slit it is for the same reason. But. no matter, she can suck just the same. 
If the hair is worn o c ' about her head or neck, be sure that it is not caused 
by some toggery put there to prevent her sucking. 



22 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

FURTHER TESTS OF COWS. 

When one has selected and bought his cows in the manner I have de- 
scribed, if he is going to get as profitable a herd as possible, he must test 
them with the scales and Babcock test for a year. He will perhaps find 
that, although he may be one of the best of judges of cows, he has got some 
unprofitable ones that will have to be discarded. 

CONCLUSION. 

By this it will be seen that a dairyman, if he obtains the greatest pos- 
sible profit out of his business, must be constantly "selecting cows" and it 
will pay him immensely to study carefully and minutely the peculiarities 
of form of all his best producers and he will be convinced that there is a best 
dairy form, as well as a best beef form, and that they never go together in the 
same animal. 



" Tlie object we have or should have in teachinq science 
is not to fill the mind with a vast number of facts that 
may or may not prove useful hereafter, but to draw out 
and exercise the powers of observation." — Dr. Morris. 



STABLE LOCATION, CONSTRUCTION AND SANITATION. 



BY H. B. GURLER, TREASURER NATIONAL DAIRY UNION, PROPRIETOR 
CLOVER DAIRY FARM — AUTHOR OF "AMERICAN DAIRYING." 

Be Kalb, III. 

I believe we are at the beginning of a revolution in the construction of 
sanitary cow stables. And it is time we realized that the cow stable is a 
place where human food is prepared. 

It is a burning shame on we dairymen that so much time and money 
has to be spent by experimenters and manufacturers to devise methods and 
machinery to cover up or bridge over our faulty work. For it is our faulty 
work that has made it necessary to pasteurize milk and cream. How many 
of us could eat a breakfast prepared in the cow stable where the milking is 
done? There certainly is no article of human food that will absorb more 
from the surrounding atmosphere than milk, and the other breakfast foods 
would be much less contaminated than is the milk. Perhaps we might offer 
the excuse that we were raised in that way and thought it all right; I cer- 
tainly can think of no other excuse, to offer, and that one will not be ac- 
cepted longer by the intelligent public. I have met persons that were so 
accustomed to the cowy odor and flavor that they were suspicious of milk 
that did not contain it. This is a little rough on humanity and perhaps 
should not have been told here. I know of a Chicago doctor telling a lady 
that he could blindfold her and lead her through a certain cow stable and 
she would have no suspicion that she was in a cow stable. This shows what 
it is possible to accomplish. And it is entirely practicable to have our stables 
in such sanitary condition that the expert will not detect the odor of the 
stable in the milk. 

To show the susceptibility of milk to contracting odors I will give a 
little incident in my dairy school work. I was training the class in de- 
tecting bad flavors in the milk by warming samples to a temperature that 
would cause a little vapor to rise from it, and passed the warm samples 
around the class. One of the students detected the flavor of the hog-pen 
one day, and 1 also did. This matter was followed to the farm where the 
milk was produced and we learned that the patron practiced putting his 
night's milk in an open vat in a room where there was nothing else, thinking 
he was doing the very best that he could. This room was about 50 feet from 

23 




24 



STABLE CONSTRUCTION AND SANITATION. 25 

his hog-pen, and to cool the room he opened a window on the side toward 
the hog-pen; the milk absorbed the hog-pen odor and brought it to the dairy 
school and we were able to detect it in the milk. 

I once made the statement at a farmer's convention, when talking on 
dairy matters, that the public consumed more filth in their milk than in any 
other one article of food. At the close of the session the dean of an agri- 
cultural college said to me that I might safely have said that we were con- 
suming more than in all other articles of food. 

We deserve to be indicted by the public for such careless work, and we 
will be, too, in the near future, if we do not mend our ways. 

The healthy cow will produce us a perfect food if we will do our part 
well. Then the up-to-date buttermaker will be happy producing butter 
that will delight all customers and compel the judges to devise a new score 
card. There is more profit to high grade work than there is in low grade 
work. A man has more respect for his business and for himself, and every- 
body thinks better of him unless it be some jealous competitor who cannot 
or will not keep up in the race. 

The cow stable should be located where good drainage can be secured, 
and the drainage should not flow toward the dwelling house, as there are 
times when the ground is frozen that surface water cannot reach the tile, 
to be carried off, and must run off on the surface. And where stock are 
gathered for a short time even they pack the soil by their tramping so that 
it is impervious to water, compelling the water to get away on the surface. 

The distance of a sanitary cow stable from the dwelling house is a mat- 
ter of choice, as it will not be objectionable to the family from any odors 
coming from it. The unsanitary cow stable should be located at a distance 
from the dwelling house to compare with its condition. 

I am not a believer in the underground nor even in a partial under- 
ground cow stable. If the situation is such that a natural approach to the 
second story can be secured and is desired, utilize it by all means; it is not 
necessary to put the building against the ground, but it can be moved or 
located a few feet away and the space bridged, which will give us one more 
side to receive light from and it will add very little to the expense of building. 

In constructing the cow stable, having first decided whether it is to 
be one or more stories high, the first to be built is the foundation, which may 
be of stone or concrete depending largely upon the comparative cost of the 
two, though the opinion is growing with me that a good job of concrete 
is more durable than stone, and in many locations it costs less by quite a 
percentage. Outside this foundation wall, and a little below it, should be 
put a row of tile to take all the surface water that would penetrate under 
the foundation, and also receive the water from the down spouts of the 
building and conduct it to a proper distance from the building. A person's 
choice and local conditions must decide what material shall be used in the 
construction of the building, and the man that is to pay the bills is the one 




X O 



S 2 



20 



STABLE CONSTRUCTION AND SANITATION. 27 

to know about these points and decide. Before the foundation is built, it 
of course has been decided whether the building is to be one or more stories 
high, and the foundation planned for the load that is to be carried. Make 
the foundation ample, as it does not cost much more; piers can be built 
very cheaply. In 1876 I built a barn 50x60 feet and put under it, beside 
the outside wall, over 40 stone piers, those under the posts being thirty 
inches square. This barn was built with a basement story for stock, and 
twenty feet above for hay and grain, and it has stood up to its load so well 
that I put a cement floor on the second story after the barn was twenty-five 
years old, and it is carrying the load all right. This was done to utilize 
room for cows that was made for hay, and was not needed for hay after the 
silo had taken the place of the haymow. 

There is a barn in my neighborhood that is about the age of the one 
that I have described that is nearly ruined from not having had a good 
foundation under it. Nothing will stand without a good foundation, it 
does not matter whether it is a barn or a man's character. 

I ceil the outer walls inside the stable with matched lumber so as to give 
a dead air space as a protection against cold, and to give a surface to white- 
wash, which is the best way I know of to keep the stable sweet and light. 
The cow stable should have sufficient windows to make it as light as a dwel- 
ling house ; there is just as much need of light in one as the other. 

I use cement floors in all stables where we milk, and should make nothing 
else if I were to build more stables. I use the individual stalls in all my 
milking stables. These stalls are so built that the cow has all the freedom 
possible, with cleanliness, as she is not tied by the neck, but is held in the 
stall by a rope or chain across the rear, and an adjustable front by wTiich 
means she can be held lined on the gutter, as it is necessary for her to be if 
she is to be kept clean without an attendant. I use a continuous cement 
manger which is very readily cleaned. I do not like an individual manger 
for the reason that it is -very hard to keep clean. But a continous cement 
manger, with sewer connections, is very easily kept clean, and this is a neces- 
sity if high grade work is to be done. A dirty manger is not a sanitary 
manger. 

My cows go outside for their water most of the time, though I can 
water in the cement mangers when it is desirable. I once came near putting 
in the individual water trough, and have been pleased that I did not do it, 
for several reasons; the main one of which is that they are not kept in a 
sanitary condition. Standing water in the stable is an excellent purifier 
of the atmosphere, but is not fit for a cow to drink after it has purified the 
stable. The cows will drink while eating and drop food into the water 
buckets where it will soon ferment. A professor of dairy husbandry who 
had visited many modern cow stables looking for ideas to incorporate in a 
new barn to be built, told me that he had not found a case where the in- 
dividual water bucket was in a good sanitary condition. 




THE H. B. GURXER SANITARY MILK PAIL. 

Devised by Mr. Gurler and used on his farm at De Kalb, 111., where about 200 cows are milked 
daily. No. 1 Is the pail complete as ready for milking — the streams strike the cloth at a 
slant, the cover checking any spatter. No. 2 is the pail as ready for washing. No. 3. the 
tin ring and part cover that holds cloth in place. No. 4. sheet of fine cheese cloth doubled 
over a layer of absorbent cotton. No. 5, cap for closing the spout (No. 0) while milking. 
The cloths are washed, sterilized, and used several times over. The cotton is thrown away 
at the finish of each milking. One pound of the cotton is sufficient to make 50 strainers. 

2S 



3TA3LE CONSTRUCTION AND SANITATION 



29 



The length of the platform on which the cows stand should be four and 
a half to five feet, according to the length of the cows, and the width needs 
to be three feet for medium sized cows, and more for large ones; very large 
cows needing, in some cases, as much as four feet, but the stall must not be 
so wide that the cow can turn around in it. These stalls may be built of 
wood or iron. Wood is all right and much less expensive than iron. The 
barn may be so arranged that a wagon can be driven through onto which the 
manure can be thrown and drawn immediately to the field; it may be wheeled 
out or it may be carried out in a conveyance running on a suspended track, 
and it may also be dropped into a basement and drawn out when we get 
ready. This plan is all right for the manure, but I do not like it for the 
cows to live ovei . 

I cannot recommend any kind of a stall for cows that will permit one 
cow to step on its neighbor's teats. When I used the stanchion as a cow 




SIDE VIEW OF -DROWN" STALL. 

Showing Method of Construction of Cement Manger and Floor and Setting of the Iron 
Partition and Feed Rack. 



tie I lost more teats from this than any other cause, the bruise causing in- 
flammation which could not be reduced in time to save that quarter of the 
udder. I can recommend no stall in which it is possible for such an ac- 
cident to occur. 

When finishing a cement floor for a cow stable, do not smooth the surface 
with the trowel, as it will be so smooth that the cow will slip on it, but leave 
it as it is from the wooden float and she will not slip on it. 

I cannot decide whether a person shall build a one story cow stable or 
whether he shall make it two or three stories; that depends on what he is 
going to do. If storage room is needed for hay, grain or other purposes, put 
the barn up and get this needed room under the same roof with the cows. 



30 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

It is an advantage to the cow stable in some ways to have a story above it; 
one reason is that it makes the ceiling warmer and there is less danger of 
frost on it in cold weather. Ten feet is a good height for the cow stable; 
eight feet will answer, but I would not build with less than ten-foot ceilings. 
I have one stable with twelve-foot ceilings, but that is higher than is neces- 
sary. The old idea that we should build a cow stable with a certain number 
of cubic feet per cow for air space ought to be exploded, as it is not up to date. 
Arrange the floor space to make it convenient for the cows and yourself, and 
provide fresh air by a system of ventilation. I have the King system of 
ventilation in four cow stables and it works very satisfactorily. This has 
been described so frequently in the dairy papers that it seems almost un- 
necessary to describe it here. It consists of air flues in the outer walls of 
the building, opening near the floor, or at the sills on the outside, and ex- 
tending upward as high as the stable ceiling, and there opening into the 
stable. These flues should have a sliding or some other controllable kind 
of a door by which the amount of air can be controlled, as in case of a strong 
wind there may be at times too much cold air received into the stable. The 
impure air is taken out by flues opening near the floor of the stables and ex- 
tending to the highest point of the barn or stable. I find this principle to 
work very nicely, having used it for at least fifteen years as near as I can 
remember. I once had visitors test the ventilation of an empty stable by 
closing all the doors and windows, when a test showed a circulation of air 
was going on all the time, coming in the fresh air flues and going out the 
foul air flues. 



Whatever is worth doing at all is worth 
doing welV — Earl of Chesterfield. 



THE COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FEEDS, WITH TABLES 
GIVING THEIR PERCENTAGE OF DI- 
GESTIBLE NUTRIENTS. 



BY W. A. HENRY, DEAN, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, UNIVERSITY OF 

WISCONSIN*, AUTHOR OF "FEEDS AND FEEDING" — A HAND-BOOK 

FOR THE STUDENT AND STOCKMAN. 

Madison, Wis. 

Every dairyman should possess a clear knowledge of the chemical com- 
position of feeding stuffs and know something of the laws of animal nutrition. 
In this chapter we will consider the common constituents of the various 
feeding stuffs generally available on American farms. I ask the reader not 
to skip this chapter, declaring it too scientific for his understanding, but to 
study it in order to know more concerning his business. The really practical 
man needs every help he can get and will utilize everything available. Science 
is simply well arranged knowledge and science is needed in every operation 
on the well managed dairy farm. 

There are technical terms to be learned, but fortunately they are few 
and not particularly difficult to understand. The first of these is "protein" 
which embraces a group of nutrients in feeding stuffs of the highest import- 
ance. Protein means first or principal, and the protein compounds in our 
feeds should always be first considered when we talk about feeding stuffs. 
The white of egg is almost pure protein with water additional. If we chew 
a few kernels of wheat for a time, there remains a sticky mass which as boys 
we called "gum." This gummy substance is the protein part of the wheat 
grain commonly called gluten. Gluten helps make the dough elastic in 
bread-making and adds greatly to the nutritive value of bread in furnishing 
protein. Nitrogen is the characteristic chemical element in all protein 
substances and hence feeding stuffs rich in protein are often called nitro- 
genous feeds. The muscles as well as the nerves of animals are composed 
mainly of protein; the hide, hair, hoofs, horns and a part of the bones like- 
wise consist largely of protein. Leguminous plants such as clover, alfalfa, 
cow peas, field peas, etc., are all rich in protein. The protein in the wheat 
grain and the corn grain is located near the outside of the kernel, and in 
milling it passes away with the bran and middlings to a considerable extent, 
so that bran and middlings are both comparatively rich in protein. When 

31 



32 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

animals consume feeding stuffs containing protein the digested portion 
leaves the intestines and passes into the blood circulation, going ultimately 
to build up the protein parts of the body, as already explained. From all 
this we will readily understand that the dairy cow must have a goodly sup- 
ply of protein in her feed in order to maintain her own muscular system, to 
build up the muscles of the foetal calf, and to form the casein and albumen 
(protein) portion of the milk. 

The next group of substances which we shall consider is characterized 
by the term "carbohydrates." Sugar and starch are pure carbohydrates. 
The woody fiber of plants is likewise a carbohydrate having practically 
the same chemical composition as sugar and starch, though less digestible 
than these. The carbohydrates dissolve in the digestive tract and when ab- 
sorbed into, the blood serve the animal for the production of fat v 
for warming the body and for the production of energy. They may be con- 
verted into the sugar part of milk. The carbohydrates constitute a larger 
proportion of feeding stuffs percentagely than does protein; the animal like- 
wise needs more pounds of carbohydrates for its nourishment than it needs 
pounds of protein. Corn, wheat, and the other grains are all rich in carbo- 
hydrates since they are composed largely of starch. Timothy hay, corn 
stover, and the straws are relatively rich in carbohydrates, containing as 
they do considerable starch, some sugar, and much woody fiber. 

The fatty substances in feeding stuffs possess the same chemical ele- 
ments as the carbohydrates and in general they serve the same purpose — 
the formation of fat and keeping the body warm. The fatty substance in 
feeding stuffs is generally termed "ether extract" by the chemist because he 
uses ether in his laboratory to extract the fat from the different feeding 
stuffs. When a pound of fat or oil is burned it gives off from 2\ to 2\ times 
as much heat as does a pound of woody fiber, sugar, or starch when burned. 
By multiplying the fat found in a feed by 2.4 we are able" to measure its 
fuel value in terms of carbohydrates. Flaxseed and cottonseed are both 
rich in oil; linseed oil meal and cotton-seed meal obtained from these seeds 
will carry considerable oil. Indian corn is quite rich in oil. Root crops are 
poor in oil or ether extract. 

A protein substance taken into the body propter can be used for all of 
the purposes that protein is required for and also do the work generally 
imposed upon the carbohydrates; that is, protein can build muscle or it 
can be converted into heat or fat or energy. On the other hand the carbo- 
hydrates and fat cannot of themselves build up muscle. They contain 
no nitrogen and cannot form red meat in the body (muscle) nor can they 
be elaborated into the cheese part of the milk. The protein part of feeds 
is always expensive so that while protein can serve all body wants we should 
not attempt to use it further than is absolutely necessary, making the cheap 
carbohydrates serve so far as they possibly can. We all know that oil 
meal and cotton-seed meal are high priced — they are so because the buyers 
are seeking protein and to some extent fat. The carbohydrates in the form 



COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FEEDS. 33 

of hav, straw and the starchy matter of corn, wheat, etc., arc much cheaper 
per pound than protein. 

The animal needs mineral matter, especially for the building up of 
bones, and there is some mineral matter in the muscles and all other portions 
of the body. When animals are properly nurtured otherwise, the stock- 
man need not consider the question of mineral matter in feeding stuffs be- 
cause there will always be enough of these substances in the feeds he sup- 
plies. Neither in this connection need we consider water, which is the 
great vehicle of nutrition. 

When a cow consumes any given feed — hay, for example, the process 
of reducing it to infinitely fine particles begins with mastication; the hay, 
moistened by saliva, is softened and passes into the paunch where it is still 
further softened by moisture and heat. Re-chewed during rumination it is 
swallowed again and finally passes into the true stomach. Here it is at- 
tacked by fluids which tend to dissolve all of the softer and more useful 
portions. Leaving the stomach, any undissolved portions of the food are 
further attacked by the bile, the pancreatic fluid, and the intestinal juices. 
These solvents reduce most of the feed to a condition where it can be util- 
ized. The dissolved parts are absorbed and enter the blood. The portion 
so absorbed is considered the digestible part of the feed. The undigested 
part passes along the alimentary tract and is finally ejected. It has 
never been properly within the body but only inside of the long convoluted 
tube (stomach and intestines) passing through the body. The digestible 
portion of the food taken up by the blood is the only part which is really 
useful to the animal. Since all the food constituents are not digestible and 
only the digested parts are useful, we have come to speak of "digestible pro- 
tein," "digestible carbohydrates," and "digestible ether extract" (or fat) 
of feeding stuffs. The chemist in his laboratory can find out how much 
total protein, total carbohydrates and total fat any given feeding stuff con- 
tains; he cannot tell us, however, by laboratory methods how much of each 
of these is really available to the animal. To determine the digestible por- 
tion he must conduct feeding tests directly with the animal itself. This is 
done in the following manner: He first analyzes the feed and determines 
the total quantity of each constituent in a given allowance of feed. This 
feed is then fed to the animal under experiment and all of the solid 
excrement resulting from it is saved and likewise analyzed. The 
sum of the constituents appearing in the solid excrement is subtracted 
from the sum of the constituents given in the feed supplied and the 
difference is called the digestible portion. Thus, if a hundred pounds of 
protein are fed to an animal and thirty pounds appear in the solid excrement, 
then seventy pounds must have passed from the intestines into the blood, 
and in this case we would say that seventy per cent, of the protein in 
this feed is digestible. 

Digestion and utilization of feed are different things. Two animals 
may digest a given feed equally well and yet give quite different returns 



34 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



from such feed. One cow may convert a large part of all she digests into 
milk, while another may turn it into body fat, and a third may waste it in 
worry or in some other way we hardly know how. Still it is of prime im- 
portance to know how much of each and all feeding stuffs is actually diges- 
tible for we then know what portion is available. A vast deal of work has 
been done by the chemist in analyzing feeding stuffs and conducting diges- 
tion trials. The following table taken from Feeds and Feeding shows the 
total dry matter and the digestible portion of all of our common feeding 
stuffs: 

Table showing the total dry matter and the digestible nutrients in 100 
pounds of American feeding stuffs. 

Carbo- Ether 

CONCENTRATES. Dry Pro " J*' ^ 

matter, tern, drates tract. 

name of feed. ' Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs . 

Corn, all analyses 89 . 1 7.9 66 . 7 4.3 

Dent corn S9.4 7.8 66.7 4.3 

Flint corn 88 . 7 8.0 66 . 2 4.3 

Sweet corn 91.2 8.8 63.7 7.0 

Corn cob 89 . 3 0.4 52 . 5 0.3 

Corn and cob meal 84 . 9 4.4 60 . 2.9 

Corn bran 90.9 7.4 59.8 4.6 

Gluten meal -....91.8 25.8 43.3 11.0 

Germ meal : 89 . 6 9.0 61.2 6.2 

Starch refuse .....91.8 11.4 58 . 4 6.5 

Grano-gluten 94 . 3 26 . 7 38 . 8 12.4 

Hominy chops ..88.9 7.5 55.2 6.8 

Glucose meal . ." 91.9 30.3 35.3 14.5 

Sugar meal 93.2 18.7 51.7 8.7 

Gluten feed 92 . 2 20 . 4 48.4 8.8 

Wheat 89.5 10.2 69.2 1.7 

High-grade flour 87 . 6 8.9 62 . 4 0.9 

Low-grade flour 87 . 6 8.2 62 . 7 0.9 

Dark feeding flour 90.3 13.5 61.3 2.0 

Wheat bran 88 . 1 12.2 39 . 2 2.7 

Wheat bran, spring wheat 88 . 5 12.9 40.1 3.4 

Wheat bran, winter wheat 87.7 12.3 37.1 2.6 

Wheat shorts 88.2 12.2 50.0 3.6 

Wheat middlings 87.9 12.8 53.0 3.4 

Wheat screenings 88. 4 9.8 51.0 2.2 

Rye 88 . 4 9.9 67 . 6 1.1 

Rye bran 88 . 4 11.5 50 . 3 2.0 

Rye shorts 90.7 11.9 45.1 1.6 

Barley 89 . 1 8.7 65 . 6 1.6 

Malt sprouts 83 - 8 18 . 6 37 . 1 1.7 

Brewers' grains, wet 24. 3 3.9 9.3 1.4 

Brewers' grains, dried 91.8 15.7 36 . 3 5.1 

Oats 89.0 9.2 47.3 4.2 

Oat meal 92. 1 11.5 52. 1 5.9 

Oat feed or shorts 92. 3 12.5 46. 9 2.8 

Oat dust 93.5 8.9 38.4 5.1 

Oat hulls 90.6 1.3 40.1 0.6 



COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FEEDS. 



35 



Carbo- Ether 



CONCENTRATES. 



Dry 

matter 

NAME OF FEED. Lbs. 

Rice 87 . 6 

Rice hulls 91.8 

Rice bran 90 . 3 

Rice polish 90 . 

Buckwheat 87 . 4 

Buckwheat hulls 86 . 8 

Buckwheat bran 89 . 5 

Buckwheat shorts 88 . 9 

Buckwheat middlings 87 . 3 



Pro- 
tein. 

Lbs. 

4.8 
1.6 

5.3 
9.0 

7.7 

2.1 

7.4 

21.1 

22.0 



hy- 
drates 
Lbs. 
72.2 
44.5 
45.1 
56.4 

49.2 
27.9 
30.4 
33 ,5 
33.4 



Flax seed 90 . 8 20 . 6 

Linseed meal, old process 90 . 8 29 . 3 

Linseed meal, new process 89 . 9 28 . 2 

Cotton seed . . . . ' 89 . 7 12.5 

Cotton-seed meal 91.8 37.2 

Cotton-seed hulls 88.9 0.3 

Cocoanut meal 89 . 7 15.6 

Palm-nut meal 89 . 6 16.0 

Sunflower seed 92 . 5 12.1 

Sunflower-seed cake 91.8 31.2 

Peanut meal 89 . 3 42 .9 

Rape-seed meal 90 . 25.2 

Peas 89.5 16.8 

Soja (soy) bean 89 . 2 29 . 6 

Cowpea 85 . 2 18.3 

Horse bean .85.7 22.4 

Fodder com. ROUGHAGE. 

Fodder corn, green ... 20.7 1.0 

Fodder corn, field-cured 57 . 8 2.5 

Corn stover (husked shock corn) , field-cured 59 . 5 1.7 

Fresh grass. 

Pasture grasses (mixed) 20 . 2.5 

Kentucky blue grass 34 . 9 3.0 

Timothy, different stages 38.4 1.2 

Orchard grass, in bloom 27 . 1.5 

Redtop, in bloom 34 . 7 2.1 

Oat fodder 37 . 8 2.6 

Rye fodder 23 . 4 2.1 

Sorghum 20 . 0.6 

Meadow fescue, in bloom 30 . 1 1.5 

Hungarian grass 28 . 9 2.0 

Green barley 21.0 1.9 

Peas and oats 16.0 1.8 

Peas and barley ! 16.0 1.7 



17.1 
32.7 
40.1 
30.0 
16.9 
33.1 
38.3 
52.6 
20.8 
19.6 
22.8 
23.7 

51.8 
22.3 
54.2 
49.3 



10.2 
19.8 
19.1 
11.4 
21.2 
18.9 
14.1 
12.2 
16.8 
16.0 
10.2 
7.1 
.2 



ex- 
tract 
Lbs. 

0.3 
0.6 
7.3 
6.5 

1.8 
0.6 
1.9 
5.5 
5.4 



Sorghum seed 87.2 7.0 52.1 3.1 

Broom-corn seed 85.9 7.4 48.3 2.9 

Kaffir corn 84.8 7.8 57.1 2.7 

Millet 86.0 8.9 45.0 3.2 



29.0 
7.0 
2.8 

17.3 

12.2 
1.7 

10.5 
9.0 

29.0 

12.8 
6.9 

. 7.5 

0.7 

14.4 

1.1 

1.2 



11.6 »0.4 
34 . 6 1.2 
32.4 0.7 



0.5 
0.8 
0.6 
0.5 



36 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



Carbo- Ether 

Dry Pro- hy- ex- 

ROUGHAGE. matter tein. drates tract 

name of feed. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Hay. 

Timothy 86 . 8 2.8 

Orchard grass 90 . 1 4.9 

Redtop 91.1 4.8 

Kentucky blue grass 78 . 8 4.8 

Hungarian grasses 92 . 3 4.5 

Mixed grass 87 . 1 5.9 

Rowen (mixed) 83 . 4 7.9 

Meadow fescue 80 . 4.2 

Soja-bean hay 88 . 7 10.8 

Oat hay 91.1 4.3 

Marsh or swamp hay 88 . 4 2.4 

Marsh or swamp hay '. 92 . 1 3.5 

White daisy 85.0 3.8 

Straw. 

Wheat 90 . 4 0.4 

Rye 92 . 9 0.6 

Oat .- 90 . 8 1.2 

Barley 85 . 8 0.7 

Wheat chaff 85 . 7 0.3 

Oat chaff 85.7 1.5 

Fresh legumes. 

Red clover, different stages 29 . 2 2.9 

Alsike, bloom 25 . 2 2.7 

Crimson clover 19.1 2.4 

Alfalfa 28.2 3.9 

Cowpea 16.4 1.8 

Soja bean 24.9 3.2 

Legume hay and straw. 

Red clover, medium.. . 84.7 6.8 

Red clover, mammoth . 78 . 8 5.7 

Alsike clover , 90 . 3 8.4 

White clover 90 . 3 11.5 

Crimson clover 90 . 4 10.5 

Alfalfa 91.6 11.0 

Cowpea 89 . 3 10.8 

Soja-bean straw 89 . 9 2.3 

Pea-vine straw 86 . 4 4.3 

Silage. 

Corn , 20.9 0.9 

Clover 28.0 2.0 

Sorghum 23.9 0.6 

Alfalfa 27.5 3.0 

Grass 32 . 1.9 

Cowpea vine 20 . 7 1.5 

Soja bean 25.8 2.7 

Barn-yard millet and soja bean 21. 1.6 

Corn and soja bean . . .'. 24 .0 1.6 



43.4 


1.4 


42.3 


1.4 


46.9 


1.0 


37.3 


2.0 


51.7 


1.3 


40.9 


1 2 


40.1 


1.5 


43.3 


1.7 


38.7 


1.5 


46.4 


1.5 


29.9 


0.9 


44.7 


0.7 


40.7 


1.2 


36.3 


0.4 


40.6 


0.4 


38.6 


0.8 


41.2 


0.6 


23.3 


0.5 


33.0 


0.7 


14.8 


0.7 


13.1 


0.6 


9.1 


0.5 


12.7 


0.5 


8.7 


0.2 


11.0 


0.5 


35.8 


1.7 


32.0 


1.9 


42.5 


1.5 


42.2 


1.5 


34.9 


1.2 


39.6 


1.2 


38.6 


1.1 


40.0 


1.0 


32.3 


0.8 


11.3 


0.7 


13.5 


1.0 


14.9 


0.2 


8.5 


1.9 


13.4 


1-6 


8.6 


0.9 


8.7 


1 .3 


9.2 


0.7 


13.0 


0.7 



COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FEEDS. 



37 



Dry Pro- 

name of feed. ROUGHAGE. matter, tei'n. 

Roots and tubers. Lbs - Lbs - 

Potato 21.1 0.9 

Beet, common 13.0 1.2 

Beet, sugar 13.5 1.1 

Beet, mangel 9.1 1.1 

Flat turnip 9.5 1.0 

Ruta-baga 11.4 1.0 

Carrot 11.4 0.8 

Parsnip 11.7 1.6 

Artichoke 20 . 2.0 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Cabbage 15.3 1.8 

Spurry 20 . 1.5 

Sugar-beet leaves 12.0 1.7 

Pumpkin, mid 9.1 1.0 

Pumpkin, garden .-...19.2 1.4 

Prickly comfrcy 11.6 1.4 

Rape .....' 14.0 1.5 

Acorns, fresh 44 . 7 2.1 

Dried blood 91.5 52 . 3 

Meat scrap 89 . 3 66 . 2 

Dried fish 89 . 2 44 . 1 

Beet pulp . 10.2 0.6 

Beet molasses 79 . 2 9.1 

Cow's milk 12.8 3.6 

Cow's milk, colostrum 25.4 17.6 

Skim milk, gravity 9.6 3.1 

Skim milk, centrifugal 9.4 3.9 

Buttermilk 9.9 3.9 

Whey 6.6 0.8 



Carbo- 


Ether 


hy- 


ex- 


drates 


tract 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


16.3 


0.1 


8.8 


0.1 


10.2 


0.1 


5.4 


0.1 


7.2 


0.2 


8.1 


0.2 


7.8 


0.2 


11.2 


0.2 


16.8 


0.2 


8.2 


0.4 


9.8 


0.3 


4.6 


0.2 


5.8 


0.3 


8.3 


0.8 


4.6 


0.2 


8.1 


0.2 


34.4 


1.7 


.0 


2.5 


.3 


13.7 


.0 


10.3 


7.3 


.0 


59.5 


.0 


4.9 


3.7 


2.7 


3.6 


4.7 


0.8 


5.2 


0.3 


4.0 


1.3 


4.7 


0.1 



This long table shows how much dry matter there is in 100 pounds of 
each of the feeding stuffs named. Following this we learn the pounds of di- 
gestible protein, carbohydrates and ether extract in 100 pounds of each and 
all of the feeds. One hundred pounds of corn, for example, the first article in 
the table, contains an average of 7.9 pounds of digestible protein. The diges- 
tible carbohydrates, mostly starch, reach the large aggregate of 66.7 
pounds, while the digestible corn oil or ether extract amounts to 4.3 pounds. 
These three sums added together do not make 100. A part of the difference 
is water, and the remainder is made up of the indigestible portion and the 
ash. The reader is urged to study the data of the table in order to familiarize 
himself with the characteristics of the different feeding materials avail- 
able in this country. He will see that such feeds as bran, gluten 
meal, linseed oil meal, cottonseed oil meal, buckwheat middlings, etc., are 
all rich in protein but carry no large percentage of carbohydrates. On the 



38 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

other hand, coin and wheat are very rich in carbohydrates and compara- 
tively low in protein content. Forage from the legumes such as clover hay 
and alfalfa hay is comparatively rich in protein while wheat straw and 
timothy hay are poor in protein. The faithful dairy student will refer 
often to such tables and will find the information most helpful. 

We should next learn what is meant by the "nutritive ratio." As before 
stated, the fat or ether extract of feeding stuffs serves the same purpose as 
the carbohydrates but has a higher fuel value. To measure these fatty 
substances in terms of carbohydrates, we multiply the quantity of digestible 
fat contained in any feed as stated in the table by 2.4. The nutritive ratio 
is the ratio existing between the digestible protein in any feed and the di- 
gestible carbohydrates plus the digestible fat reduced to carbohydrate 
equivalent. To find the nutritive ratio we multiply the digestible ether 
extract by 2.4 (its heat equivalent) and add the result to the total digestible 
carbohydrates. The sum obtained is next divided by the total digestible 
protein. In the table which Professor Haecker gives, Wolff tells us that 
the nutritive ratio for the dairy cow should be 1:5.4. By this he means 
that the ratio of the protein to the carbohydrates and ether extract equiva- 
lent should be that expressed by the figures. In other words, the scientific 
ration for the dairy cow should have 5.4 pounds of carbohydrates or 
their equivalent for each pound of protein it contains. 

In availing himself of feeding stuffs for the use of his herd the dairyman 
should have certain fixed facts well in mind. Let us first consider some of 
these in relation to the concentrates. Of all the various feeding stuffs 
generally available, Indian corn is the richest in carbohydrates and fat. 
Indian corn may be regarded as a fuel and fat forming food, much as anthra- 
cite coal is a heat furnisher. Corn is generally the cheapest source of con- 
centrated carbohydrates available to the stockman, and consequently will 
be extensively used by the American dairyman. Supplied in reasonable 
quantity, there is no better feed than corn; fed in excess, it tends to cause 
the cow to fatten and consequently to dry up in her milk. 

In recent times there has been a wonderful increase in the manufacture 
of various articles like starch, glucose, dextrine, etc., from the corn grain. 
As a consequence vast quantities of by-products termed corn bran, gluten 
meal, gluten feed, corn germ, corn-oil cake, etc., are being offered to stock- 
men as feeding substances. These materials, if pure, are of high feeding 
value, and the dairyman should thoroughly familiarize himself with their 
properties and uses. Gluten meal is the protein part of the corn grain 
aside from the germ. It is of a heavy concentrated character. Corn 
bran is the skin or outside covering of the corn grain. These two feeds 
mixed constitute gluten feed. The germs of the corn grain freed by the 
manufacturer from most of the oil they contain constitute germ-oil cake or 
meal. It is a rich, useful feed. 

Next to corn comes wheat, which has about the same feeding value 
as corn, so far as carbohydrates are concerned, and is a little higher in 



COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FEEDS. 39 

protein. Wheat is a splendid cow feed and only its high price prevents its 
wide use. Bade}- may be used with advantage when not too high priced. 

The by-products from the barley grain known as malt sprouts, wet 
brewers' grains, and dried brewers' grains are most helpful feeds with the 
dairyman. As the table shows, malt sprouts are very rich in digestible 
protein. Unfortunately cows do not usually like malt sprouts very well 
and so they cannot be heavily fed. At the prices for which they are usually 
sold they are very cheap and dairymen should use them to the extent of 
two or three pounds per cow per day. Malt sprouts should either be soaked 
before feeding or they may be mixed directly with silage or other wet feed. 
Wet brewers' grains are a nutritious, milk-producing food greatly relished 
by cows. They are a dangerous feed in the hands of ignorant or vicious 
dairymen. They should always be fed before they have been fermented, 
and only a reasonable allowance should be given. Fed after they have 
fermented and given in dirty feeding boxes and in dark, foul stables, as is 
too often the case near cities, it is no wonder that many people object to the 
milk from cows fed wet brewers' grains. All such troubles lie in the abuse 
and not in the legitimate use of such materials. Dried brewers' grains are 
a very rich, nutritious food for dairy cows. They are now mostly shipped 
across the ocean to be fed on the Continent. They should be fed nearer 
where they are produced. Oats in and of themselves practically form a 
balanced ration. Bran falls on the protein side of our list since it is relatively 
low in carbohydrates and quite high in protein. Then follows middlings, 
likewise from the wheat grain. The enormous milling interests in the 
northwestern states give to the farmers of that region a vast output of bran 
and middlings. The use of these feeds is now universal, and they are pro- 
perly appreciated. Bran is healthful as well as nutritious, and with oats 
forms one of the safest feeds at the dairyman's hands. Milk requires much 
mineral matter in the foods producing it, and bran is rich in both phos- 
phoric acid and potash. Middlings furnish more carbohydrates than bran. 
Generally the farmer would better mix bran and corn rather than feed bran 
and middlings. In many cases the latter may best be used as a pig feed. 

Buckwheat middlings are a very rich protein feed and of high feeding 
value with cows. The miller mixes as much of the black, almost worthless 
buckwheat hulls with the rich middlings as possible, and then sells the com- 
bination for bran. The dairyman would better buy the higher priced mid- 
dlings and then use corn stalks, straw from his own farm, etc., in place of 
the low value hulls. 

There are a number of by-products from the oat-meal mills. Oat hulls 
are sometimes sold to feed dealers, who mix them with corn meal and sell 
the mixture for ground oats and corn, which mixture is valuable just in the 
proportion that it contains the real grain substance. Oat dust is of low value, 
and in other ways not desirable. Linseed oil meal is a useful food for farm 
stock generally. This substance is not only rich in protein but it has muci- 
laginous properties which seem particularly helpful to the digestive tract. 



40 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

Cows do not respond, however, to the heavy feeding of linseed meal, and its 
high price often limits its general use. The dairyman can usually profitably 
feed a pound or two per cow daily, which small allowance will have a beneficial 
effect on the digestive tract, showing that fact in the smooth, glossy coat of 
hair and the general thrift of the animal. 

Cotton-seed meal is richer than linseed meal in protein, but it does not have 
the general beneficial effect found in linseed meal. Throughout the South 
cotton seed and cotton-seed meal should be extensively fed. In the north- 
ern dairy districts cotton-seed meal will often be extensively used because 
it is a cheap source of protein, and manure resulting from its use is extremely 
rich in fertility. The dairyman can often advantageously feed two or three 
pounds of cotton-seed meal daily per cow. As with linseed meal, such an 
allowance will help bring the protein up to the required standard. 

In regard to the roughage, we must place first reliance on the Indian corn 
plant since it supplies us with the cheapest possible carbohydrates. Every 
American dairyman should be an extensive corn raiser not only because 
of the grain furnished but for the roughage it supplies. Dry fodder corn can 
be used with all. forms of dairy stock from calves to milk cows, with success 
and economy. Planted thickly, there is a fair yield of grain and a large pro- 
duction of coarse corn-hay or fodder. Planted less thickly, there is a large 
yield of grain, and the corn stover or straw is still valuable — much more so 
than wheat or oat straw. Many dairymen are not satisfied with good corn 
fodder or corn stover for their cows, but push their progress further and 
utilize the silo as a means of storing fresh succulent corn forage. 

Experiments at the Wisconsin, Vermont and New Jersey Experiment 
Stations show that an acre of corn in the silo is somewhat superior in feeding 
value to an acre of dried shock corn. There is another effect of silage not 
measured in short experiments. This succulent feeding material tends to 
keep the animal in a healthy, thrifty condition, something which is not at- 
tained during our long winters by using dry feeds only. All talk about silage 
destroying the teeth of cows, eating up the digestive tract or inducing 
or favoring tuberculosis, is idle talk and should not be listened to by intel- 
ligent dairymen. Silage has proved its usefulness and helpfulness over and 
over again on the American dairy farm. 

Oat straw is the best kind of straw for dairy cows, a few pounds a day 
being helpful in making up a ration. Next comes barley straw, then wheat 
straw, and finally rye straw, which last two had better be used for bedding 
purposes rather than placed in the feed manger. 

Of the hays, timothy is the least valuable, being comparatively rich 
in carbohydrates but quite poor in protein, and always more expensive for 
the nutriment furnished than is corn forage. The dairy farmer cannot 
afford to raise timothy hay for his cows so long as he can grow a corn crop. 
Clover hay is comparatively rich in protein, and when well cured is one of 
the most useful of all feeds in the dairy barn. First of all the dairyman 
should be a corn grower and next a clover grower. By using clover, the 



COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FEEDS. 41 

protein of the ration is materially increased at low cost for the same, and 
this means a cutting off of expense for concentrated feeds purchased. The 
large protein requirements of the dairy cow explains why she takes so kindly 
to red clover hay. Better still than red clover hay is that from the alfalfa 
plant. Good alfalfa hay is almost as rich in protein as wheat bran, and 
carries about the same amount of carbohydrates as the feeding table in this 
chapter shows. It is not surprising then that we find dairymen who have 
alfalfa hay, claiming that in many cases such hay takes the place of wheat 
bran in the ration. Dairy farmers should carefully test the alfalfa plant and 
grow it if that can possibly be done. 

In considering the question of preparing feed for the dairy cow we 
should understand her needs and the composition of the feeding stuffs 
available. Where the ears of corn are small and where labor is high, it will 
often be best to feed shock corn directly to the cattle without husking. It 
is best to run the forage through the feed cutter, but if one can put up with 
the long waste stalks, he need not even give that preparation. The dairy 
cow can do her own husking of corn, and thanks no one to do it for her. 
Like the hickory-nut meat, the ear of corn is fresher when left in the husk 
until used. The cow is happy when crunching small ears of coin. Par- 
tially dry cows; dry cows, heifers and other young stock may well get 
their small corn allowance in the unhusked form. Oats may also be fed 
whole. Where animals are hard worked as is the dairy cow when giving a 
full flow of milk, it is generally best to prepare feed by chaffing or shred- 
ding the corn forage, cutting the hay and grinding the grain. 

The paunch of the dairy cow holds two or three hundred pounds of 
food and water. In the paunch the food does not lie quiet but is being con- 
stantly moved about and mixed by the muscular contractions of that organ ; 
this true, there is very little use of the farmer mixing up feeds in advance 
for his cows. Farmers sometimes think that if they moisten the forage 
and then sprinkle meal over it, that they have greatly helped the cow. All 
the feed a cow eats is intimately mixed in the paunch within fifteen minutes 
after it is swallowed. This true, one should feed cows in that manner 
which is the most satisfactory to them so far as palatability goes and the 
most convenient to himself. In regard to the order of administering feed, 
habit and comfort should rule again. Some cows grow restless if they do 
not receive their concentrates first, and after eating these they quietly 
munch the roughage for two or three hours later. The same rule should 
govern in regard to the frequency of feeding. Habit is the strongest factor. 
In general, the writer believes that twice a day is often enough for feeding 
the dairy cow concentrates, and roughage too for the most part. Let the 
morning and night feeds be heavy. At mid-day let the cows have some 
roughage to chew when they would otherwise be idle. It is not necessary 
to feed a cow four or five times a day to get the best results. Nature pro- 
vides the paunch as a storage place for food, and it is a good deal better to 



42 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

let this be well filled and then well emptied twice a day than to be constantly- 
adding a little from time to time. 

There seems no valid reason for wetting forage and then placing meal 
thereon unless the cattle like such feed a great deal better than in the dry 
form. Carefully conducted tests show that forage and grain are often actu- 
ally injured for stock-feeding by being ccoked. The dairyman should usu- 
ally not cook any feed for his cattle. Roots are a good feed for cattle, 
but it costs too much to produce them in this country. The farmer who is 
inclined to grow roots for his cattle because he feels their need of succulent 
feed in the winter time should build a silo and use that instead of the root 
cellar. A good crop of corn silage costs only about half as much as roots for 
the nutriment furnished. 

The silo as an adjunct to dairying, calls for special treatment. The silo 
is simply a large tub or vat in which green forage, usually the corn plant, 
is preserved until required for feeding cows. Whoever uses the silo should 
see that it is air-tight and well made. "Cheap" silos are a delusion. Even 
though the cattle will eat silage from a poorly made silo, it has usually lost 
much of its value through slow fermentation and waste. With a good silo 
one can store a large amount of green corn in most palatable form to be 
used when required. Corn is the best silage crop. It should be cut into 
half-inch to inch and half lengths and placed in the silo when the grains 
of corn on the ears are dented and while the leaves of the plant are still green. 
The silo should be slowly and steadily filled. Great care shotdd be taken 
in packing the material about the walls, and if the silo is not deep, the ma- 
terial should be weighted. In corn silage no part of the corn plant is wasted 
by the animal, the coarser parts being readily consumed. By preserving 
the corn in the silo there is no husking or otherwise caring for the grain, 
every part of the work being performed in the single operation of silo filling. 
Dairy cows are universally fond of corn silage when they have once learned 
to know it. At the University farm when feeding cows liberally on corn 
silage we have had them refuse to eat so much as five pounds of hay per day, 
though the latter was of good quality. The dairyman hecause of the large 
amount of manure produced on the farm can grow large crops of corn, and 
this can be preserved in the silo. Silage is useful not only for winter feeding 
but for summer feeding, when a shortage of pasture is apt to occur. Some 
dairymen think even more of the silo for summer use than for winter feed- 
ing. Twenty years ago the silo was advocated by a few enthusiasts who 
claimed unreasonable things for it. These claims did much harm and preju- 
diced many dairymen. Strangely this prejudice yet exists in many places. 
All dairymen do not need a silo. Some of them keep only a few cows on a 
given area of land and have plenty of roughage; such do not need a silo. 
The dairyman who needs a silo is the one who keeps a large number of cows 
relatively on a given area of land, and is always short of coarse feed and 
corn. The silo in and of itself will not help the dairyman any more than will 
a wagon, a horse or anything else — all depends upon whether it is needed or 



COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FEEDS. 43 

not. The use of the silo is steadily growing with intelligent, pushing dairy- 
men. Where dairying is the most extensively followed there the silo has the 
most friends. Half-hearted dairymen or those who follow dairying as a 
secondary business would better let the silo alone. 



"He that gives a portion of his time and talent to 
the investigation of mathematical truth, will come to all 
other questions with a decided advantage over his 
opponents." — Colton. 



'■'Seldom ever was any knowledge given to keep, 
but to impart; the grace of tins rich jewel 
is lost in concealment." — Bishop Hall. 



44 



MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG DAIRY STOCK, WITH 
REVIEW OF SOME INTERESTING CALF 
EXPERIMENTS. 



BY D. H. OTIS, PROFESSOR OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY, KANSAS AGRICUL- 
TURAL COLLEGE AND EXPERIMENT STATION. 

Manhattan, Kan. 
THE REARING OF CALVES. 

Prenatal Influences: To get best results in rearing calves attention 
must be given to the mothers of the calves previous to birth. A good 
dairyman will supply his cows with wholesome and nutritious feeds in 
abundance. This is necessary for best results at the pail as well as for 
the best development of the calf. Highest yields of milk and butterfat and 
the best calves are usually obtained from cows that go dry from six to eight 
weeks prior to calving. If it is impossible to dry the cow without injuring 
the udder, continuous milking should be practiced. 

A dry cow on good pasture with plenty of shade and water will need 
very little attention, except to see that she is not annoyed or injured by 
other cattle. Sometimes heavy milkers on luxuriant pastures will be stim- 
ulated to produce too much milk prior to calving, in which case the supply 
of feed should be reduced. On dry feed the cows should be kept in good 
condition though not too fat. Where alfalfa or clover hay is available, 
little or no grain is necessary. Ensilage and roots are especially desirable 
for cows at this time. When grain is used a mixture of two-thirds bran 
and one-third oil meal is excellent. Soy beans make a good substitute for 
oil meal. The object is to keep the bowels loose. All these points have 
an important bearing on the health of the cow and consequently on the 
condition and health of the calf, before and after birth. If the cow is sick 
when the calf is born the milk is liable to be affected in a way to seriously 
injure the calf. 

At Calving Time: If the weather is chilly put the cow in a box stall 
well bedded and free from draught. When the calf is born blanket the 
cow until she gains her normal condition. If nothing better is available 
gunny sacks, sewed together, will answer. Give light, loosening feeds and 
water from which the chill has been removed. Cold water is likely to cause a 
contraction of the womb and retention of the afterbirth. If the latter is not 

45 



4G 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



discharged in twenty-four to forty-eight hours it should be removed. If the 
udder is hot and caked it is better to milk the cow frequently (at least once in 
two or three hours) but not dry, as a fresh flow would be stimulated which 
would increase the inflammation and might lead to milk fever. Steaming 
the udder with a flannel cloth dipped in as hot water as the hands will bear 
is very desirable after which the udder should be rubbed dry and treated 
with camphorated vaseline. Keep the bowels loose. If any signs of con- 
stipation appear, give one and one-half to two pounds of Epsom salts dis- 
solved in warm water. Adhering to these points means much in giving 
the calf a good, vigorous start. 




STEEH RAISED ON SKIM MILK. 

The New Born Calf: After the calf is licked dry by its mother it 
usually has strength enough .to rise and suck. If it does not it should be 
assisted in securing its first meal. The calf may then be taken away, in 
which case it should be fed the colostrum milk from its mother, or it may be 
left until the milk is fit for use. Where the cow's udder is in good shape it 
is easier to teach the calf to drink when it is taken away before sucking at 
all. The records at the Kansas Experiment Station show that when a 
calf is weaned from its mother at once or when four or five days old, it will 
make good gains the first week, but when left two or three weeks, the first 
seven days after weaning is a losing period. If the cow's udder is caked, 



MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG DAIRY STOCK. 



47 



however, it is well to leave the calf with her, as the rubbing of the calf tends 
to reduce inflammation and soften the udder. Where the calf is several 
days old before weaning, the moral atmosphere around the calf pen will 
usually be better if the calf be allowed to go without eating for twenty- 
four hours. By that time is it hungry enough to eat without a great deal 
of coaxing. 

Feeding the Milk: In nature, the calf gets its milk often but in 
small quantities, and always at blood temperature. In this respect we 
should imitate nature as far as possible. At first the calf should not be 
fed over ten pounds daily (one quart equals about two pounds), divided 




READY FOR BREAKFAST. 

into three messes; four pounds in the morning, two pounds at noon, and 
four pounds at night. This quantity may be increased gradually to twelve 
pounds per day. After two weeks the milk may be fed only twice daily. 
Since the calf is a very greedy animal, there is often a great temptation to 
give it more milk than it can properly handle, thus causing scours. Over 
feeding is undoubtedly one of the main reasons why so many farmers fail 
in raising good calves on skim milk. The quantity of milk should be weighed 
or measured at each feed. Calves from three to five weeks of age will con- 
sume from ten to twelve pounds daily; when from seven to eight weeks old 
fourteen to sixteen pounds daily; and when three or four months old from 



48 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

eighteen to twenty pounds. Calf milk should always be fed waim and 
sweet. If impossible to have the milk sweet all the time, then it should 
be fed sour every meal. It is possible to raise good calves on sour milk, 
but it is impossible to raise good calves and have sweet milk one meal and 
sour the next. 

Importance of Skim Milk: Since the advent of creameries the rais- 
ing of calves on skim milk has been a subject of vital importance to every 
creamery patron and one of growing importance to every private dairy- 
man. When calves six months old are worth from eighteen to twenty dollars 
a head, and when the profits from a good milk cow are so greatly enhanced 
by raising the calf on skim milk, it is vastly important that we know how, 
first, to raise a No. 1 calf, and second (especially to the man with limited 
capital on high priced land), how to accomplish this result through the 
medium of skim milk. 

Changing from Whole to Skim Milk: When two or three weeks old 
we may begin to feed skim milk. The stomach of a calf is delicate and 
sensitive, and any change of feed should be made gradually. Do not change 
from whole milk to skim milk faster than a pound or a pound and one-half 
per day; i. e., if the calf is getting twelve pounds of whole milk per day, 
the first day of the change feed eleven pounds of whole milk and one pound 
of skim milk; the second day ten pounds of whole milk and two pounds of 
skim milk; and so on, until the change is complete. 

Feeding Grain: It has been found by experience that the starch 
and fat contained in corn or Kafir-corn can be made to take the place of fat 
removed from the milk. Calves will begin to eat grain when ten days to 
two weeks old. At first put a little meal in their mouths after drinking 
their milk, and in a short time they will go to their feed boxes and eat with 
a relish. We find that calves four weeks old will cat from one-half to three- 
fourths of a pound per day; when eight weeks old, from one and one-fourtii 
to one and one-half pounds per day. 

Never mix com, Kafir-com or any other grain in the milk. The starch 
of corn must be changed to sugar before it is digestible. This change takes 
place only in the presence of an alkali, and, hence, chiefly by the saliva of 
the mouth. When the corn is gulped down with the milk the starch is not 
acted upon by the saliva, and cannot be acted upon by the gastric juice of 
the stomach, since that is acid instead of alkaline. It will then re- 
main unchanged until it reaches the alkaline secretions of the intes- 
tines. Since the intestines of the calf are comparatively short, complete 
digestion is impossible. In this respect the calf differs from the hog, which 
has a comparatively small stomach and long intestines. For this reason 
he may gulp down his feed, and what is not digested in the mouth will have 
plenty of time to be digested in the intestines. 

Kafir-corn meal has proven to be a superior feed for calves. It seems 
to be constipating, and materially assists in checking the tendency to scours, 
so common with calves. Experiments at the Kansas Station show that 



MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG DAIRY STOCK. 



49 



calves will begin eating shelled corn when three to four weeks old and will 
do as well and even better than when fed corn chop. When possible it is 
desirable to feed a mixture of shelled corn and ground Kafir-corn. 

Soy beans have been tested at the Kansas Experiment Station as a 
calf feed, and all results indicate that they are not adapted to young calves 
in any quantity whatever. They are very loosening and cause scours. 

Where calves are intended for dairy cows, the grain ration of corn or 
corn meal should be changed to include oats and bran or oil meal whenever 
they begin to appear fleshy. 

Feeding Roughness: Calves will begin to nibble at hay about the 




SKIM MILK STEERS. 
Average Weight, 724 Pounds at One Year Old. 

same time that they commence to eat grain. When from six to eight weeks 
old, the calves under experiment at the Kansas Agricultural College con- 
sumed from one-half to one pound daily per head. Mixed orchard grass 
and prairie hay are best. Alfalfa hay proves to be too loosening for young 
calves, though it may be gradually introduced into the rations after three 
to four months. Nothing but clean, bright hay should be offered to calves. 
At times considerable difficulty is experienced from scours when calves 
are suddenly turned on pastures. This can be overcome by feeding a 
little green feed before making the change. Give a forkful the first feed, 
two forksful the second feed, and so on until the calves get all the green 



50 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



feed they want, when they can be turned on pasture without injury. 

Water: Calves like fresh, clean water. In a trial at the Kansas 
Station with thirteen calves, ranging from two to three months of age, it 
was found that 868 pounds of water was drunk in seven days, or nearly 
ten pounds per day per head. It was noticed that these calves drank sev- 
eral times a day, but sipped only a little at a time. Even after their ration 
of milk they would take a few swallows of water. An automatic waterer 
situated a little above the surface of the ground is the best arrangement 
for supplying this need. 

Calf Ties: The Kansas Experiment Station has tried both ropes 
and stanchions, and find that using the latter is the simplest and best means 



m 







SKIM MILK CALVES. 
Average Daily Gain Per Head, 1.51 Pounds. Feed Cost Per 100 Pounds of Gain, $2.26, 

of holding calves while they are being fed. Calves will also learn to eat 
grain much quicker than when fed in an open pen. With stanchions each 
calf finds its place, and the feeder can set the milk pail in the feed trough, 
which prevents it from being tipped over, and while the calf is drinking 
can measure out the milk for the next calf. In this way it is possible for a 
man to keep three or four pails going, until all the calves are fed. If grain 
is put into the feed trough at once the calf will go to eating, and forget 
about its friendly but impolite and unsanitary affection for its neighbors 
ears or mouth. Calves fed in this way can be let loose again fifteen minutes 
after entering the stanchions. The Agricultural College has found that 
excellent stanchions for calves can be made out of plain fencing for the 



MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG DAIRY STOCK. 51 

upright pieces, with 2x4'sforthe horizontal pieces at the top, with fencing 
boards at the bottom. The stanchions are forty-two inches high, twenty- 
eight inches apart from center to center, and allow for four and one-half 
inches space for the neck. The feed trough is twelve inches wide, four 
inches deep, and runs the full length of the stanchion. If calves are fast- 
ened by rope tics, they should be far enough apart to prevent them from 
sucking each other. 

Scours: The greatest difficulty in raising calves is undoubtedly 
scours. Here, as elsewhere, "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of 
cure." The principle causes are overfeeding, feeding sour milk, feeding 
cold milk, feeding grain with the milk, dirty milk pails, unwholesome feed 
boxes, and irregularity of feeding. An intelligent and observing feeder 
will notice the symptoms of this disease as soon as it appears, in which case 
the ration of milk should be cut down one-half or more and gradually in- 
creased again as the calf is able to stand it. A successful feeder will do 
his best to keep the milk sweet- When sterilized skim milk is brought 
back from the creamery, the portion intended for that night's feed will 
usually keep in good condition without any treatment. The portion 
intended for the next morning's feed or the following feeds (where milk is 
kept over Sunday or hauled to the creamery every other day) needs to be 
cooled down to 60 degrees F. or less as soon as it arrives from the creamery. 
Complaints are sometimes received about sterilized skim milk souring when 
placed in tubs of cold water as soon as received from the creamery. Sterilized 
skim milk will not sour until it is cooled to about blood temperature. A 
can of hot milk will warm a tub of water to about this temperature, and as 
the milk is cooled at the same time the best conditions are offered for the 
development of lactic-acid germs. In this case a tub of water only helps 
to keep the can of milk at blood temperature. Under such circumstances 
the water is worse than nothing. If hot skim milk is cooled in the tub, it 
should be done by running water. A better plan is to use a cooler, and 
j)lace the can of cooled milk in a tub of cold water in order to keep it cool. 

Skim milk treated in this way at the Kansas Agricttltural College has 
been kept sweet from Saturday forenoon until Monday morning, during the 
hottest months of the summer, without the use of a particle of ice, the cool- 
ing being done with well water. Where trouble is experienced when skim 
milk is cooled and kept below 60 degrees, the fault probably lies in using 
unclean utensils, or by the creamery receiving tainted or sour milk, or by 
the skim milk being improperly sterilized. 

The heating of the milk tends to produce chemical changes that help 
to prevent scours. There is probably no more effective way of upsetting 
the system of the young calf than by feeding it cold milk. So important 
is it always to feed the milk at blood temperature (95 to 100 degrees F.) 
that a careful feeder will occasionally test the temperature with a ther- 
mometer. No one can expect to successfully raise skim milk calves 
without giving close attention to the temperature of the milk when fed. 



52 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



The feeding of the grain with the milk has already been mentioned in 
detail. Calf buckets may be kept clean by rinsing and scalding after each 
feed. No more grain or hay should be fed than the calves will eat up clean. 
Should any remain uneaten it should be removed before giving any fresh 
feed. Calves like salt the same as other animals. 

Dried blood has been found to be an effective remedy for scours. Mix 
a teaspoonful with the milk while the calf is drinking. In case of a weak 
calf the allowance may be increased gradually to a tablespoonful at each 
feed. 

To summarize, warm, sweet milk, fed in clean buckets, with access to 
corn meal, shelled corn or Kafir-corn meal, bright hay, fresh, clean water, 




WHOLE MILK CALVES. 
Average Daily Gain •per Head, 1.S6 Pounds. Feed Cost Per 1UU Pounds of Gain, $5.4(1. 

salt, plenty of sunlight, shelter and bedding in cold weather, shade in sum- 
mer and regularity and kindness in treatment will usually insure good, 
thrifty calves that will gain from a pound and one-half to two pounds daily. 

SOME INTERESTING CALF EXPERIMENTS. 

Creamery Compared with Hand Separator Skim Milk: Thirteen 
calves at the Kansas Experiment Station were divided into two lots of six 
and seven respectively. During the feeding period of 142 days the six 
calves, fed on sterilized creamery skim milk made a gain of 250 pounds per 
head, while the seven calves fed on hand separator skim milk gained during 
the same time 251 pounds per head. At first the calves showed a dislike 



management of young dairy stock. 



53 



for sterilized skim milk but as soon as they became accustomed to the odor 
they drank it with a relish. It will thus be seen that the two kinds of skim 
milk are practically equal in feeding value. Too much emphasis however 
cannot be placed upon having the skim milk from the creamery thoroughly 
sterilized, preferably by live, dry steam so as to add as little water as pos- 
sible. The temperature should go above 200 degrees F. Where the skim 
milk is sterilized at the creamery and well cared for after reaching the farm 
the calves are sure of getting good sweet milk of uniform quality at each 
meal. Sterilized milk helps to prevent scours. Without these precau- 
tions it is impossible to raise good, thrifty calves on skim milk. Steriliza- 




calvbs raised with dams. 

Average Daily Gain Per Head, 1. 77 Pounds. Cost Per 100 Pounds of Gain, 



tion is not necessary where the milk is separated on the farm and fed im- 
mediately after each milking. 

Feeding Oil Meal, Flaxseed Meal or Blachford's Meal with 
Milk: The Iowa Experiment Station compared the relative value of oil 
meal and corn meal in supplementing skim milk. In commenting on the 
results Professor Curtiss says. "The results of all the investigations made 
at this station strongly indicate that it is not only unnecessary but poor 
economy and poor practice in feeding to use a highly nitrogenous product 
like oil meal in combination with separator skim milk. The practice has 
neither logical reason nor scientific theory for its support; and in the 
corn belt states with their surplus of corn and oats, there is no necessity 



54 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK.. 

for the purchase of a high-priced nitrogenous product to be used in supple- 
menting the skim milk ration." 

Flaxseed meal is recommended by dairy writers as a suitable feed to 
take the place of the butterfat removed from the milk. Blachford's calf 
meal is advertised and sold for the same purpose. The Kansas Experiment 
Station fed four calves on flaxseed meal. The meal was placed in a pail 
and enough boiling water poured over it to make a jelly, which was fed 
with the skim milk at feeding time. At first each calf received a tablespoon- 
ful of flaxseed at each meal; this allowance was gradually increased to one- 
half pound per head per day by the time the calves were three to four 
months old. Four calves were fed Blachford's calf meal. The latter was 
mixed with warm water according to directions to form a gruel. This 
gruel was mixed with the skim milk and the same amount fed as with the 
flaxseed meal. Both lots received all the mixed hay and Kafir-corn meal 
they would eat. A third lot of five calves received skim milk, Kafir-corn 
meal and mixed hay. The calves receiving the Blachford's calf meal gained 
1.9 pounds daily per head, the flaxseed lot 1.55 pounds daily per head, and 
the lot with nothing mixed with their skim milk 1.S2 pounds daily per head. 
Both the flaxseed meal and the Blachford's calf meal are very expensive, 
and unless better gains than the above are secured their use is not only ex- 
pensive but of practically no value. 

Shelled Corn Compared with Corn Chop for Young Calves: In 
the fall of' 1900, the Kansas Experiment Station purchased twenty head of 
young calves, composed mostly of Shorthorn and Hereford grades. On 
November 28, these calves were divided into two lots as nearly equal as 1 
possible, the average weight being 127 pounds. Both lots were fed and 
treated alike, with the exception that one received its grain as shelled corn 
and the other as corn chop. All the calves were fed mixed hay (red clover, 
orchard grass and English blue grass) for the first nine weeks, prairie hay 
for the next four weeks and a mixture of prairie and alfalfa for the last six 
weeks. Each lot was given all the milk, grain and hay the calves would eat 
without scouring. Salt was accessible at all times. For nine days previous 
to the division into lots the grain for all the calves consisted of a mixture of 
shelled corn and corn chop. It was noticed that the calves would begin to eat 
the shelled corn when three to four weeks old.andinafew cases when two to 
three weeks old. At the commencement of the experiment each lot was 
consuming ten pounds of grain daily. As the experiment advanced it 
was found that the corn chop calves could not eat as much grain as the 
shelled corn calves without causing considerable trouble from scours. This 
accounts for the difference of 325 pounds in the grain consumed by the 
two lots. 

Shelled Corn Lot: For nineteen weeks under experiment these 
ten calves consumed 18,561 pounds of skim milk, 2,611 pounds of shelled 
corn, and 7,088 pounds of hay. The total gain during the experiment was 
2,322 pounds, or 1.74 pounds daily per head. Valuing skim milk at fifteen 



MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG DAIRY STOCK. 55 

cents per hundred pounds, grain at fifty cents per hundred pounds and hay 
at $4.00 per ton, the feed cost of raising these calves amounts to $55.06, 
or $5.50 per head. The cost for each 100 pounds of gain is as follows: 
Skim milk $1.20, grain $0.56, roughness $0.61, total $2.37. 

Corn Chop Lot: The ten calves consumed 18,666 pounds of skim- 
milk, 2,286 pounds of corn chop, 7,088 pounds of hay. The gain of this 
lot was 2,123 pounds, or 1.59 pounds daily per head. At prices given above 
the feed cost amounts to $53.60, or $5.36 per head. The cost of each 100 
pounds of gain is as follows: Skim-milk $1.31, grain $0.54, roughness $0.67, 
total $2.52. If we raise the cost of grain five cents per 100 pounds (about 
three cents per bushel) to pay for the grinding, the grain cost per 100 pounds 
of gain would be increased to $0.59 and the total to $2.57. 

Comparing the two lots, we find those on shelled corn made the best 
gains by 199 pounds and at a cost of $0.20 less per 100 pounds of gain. 
Since calves relish shelled corn and will begin eating it when three or four 
weeks old, and make better and cheaper gains on it, and are less subject to 
scours than on corn chop, there is certainly no object in going to the expense of 
grinding corn. This experiment shows that it is possible to raise good, 
thrifty calves that will gain 1.75 pounds daily per head on feeds produced 
entirely from the farm and in a form that requires no preparation of the 
feed, outside of harvesting, except the shelling of the corn. 

Three Ways of Feeding Milk to Calves: Twenty head of grade 
Shorthorn and Hereford calves were purchased by the Kansas Experiment 
Station in the spring of 1900 and divided into two lots. One lot was fed on 
sterilized creamery skim milk with a grain ration composed of equal parts 
of corn and Kafir-corn meal, with all the alfalfa hay they would eat. The 
second lot was fed the same as the first, except that fresh whole milk was 
used instead of skim milk. In addition to these two lots, the Station secured 
the privilege of weighing twenty-two head of high grade Hereford calves 
which were running with their dams in a pasture near the Experiment Station. 

Results with Skim Milk: For the twenty-two weeks under experi- 
ment the ten calves consumed 24,736 pounds of skim milk, 1,430 pounds 
of corn chop, 1,430 pounds of Kafir-corn meal and 641 pounds of alfalfa hay. 
The total gain was 2,331 pounds, or a daily average of 1.51 pounds per 
head. Figuring skim milk at 15 cents per 100, grain at 50 cents per 100 
pounds and hay at $4 per ton, the total feed cost of raising these calves 
was $52.68, or $5.27 per head. The feed cost for each 100 pounds of gain 
was $2.26. 

Cows that are milked will produce larger yields than when suckling 
calves. According to the average yield at this Station, ten cows (one for 
each calf) produced 55,540 pounds of milk testing 3.93 per cent, butterfat. 
With butterfat at 15£ cents per pound, this would amount to $338.52. 
The value of the skim milk not needed by the calves would raise this to 
$374.24. Deduct from this the value of the feed consumed by the calves 
and there remains $321.56, or $32.15 per calf topayfor the expense of milking, 



56 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



feeding the calves and hauling the milk to the creamery. At 12 J cents 
per hour, this expense need not be one-half of the above sum, leaving $15 
to $16 clear profit for each calf raised on skim milk. 

Results with Whole Milk: During twenty-two weeks these ten 
calves consumed 23,287 pounds of fresh milk, 835 pounds of corn chop, 
835 pounds of Kafir-corn meal, and 835 pounds of alfalfa hay. The total 
gain was 2,878 pounds, or a daily average of 1.86 pounds per head. Charg- 
ing butterfat at creamery prices, the feed cost of raising these calves 
amounted to $157.19 or $15.72 per head. The feed cost for each 100 pounds 
of gain amounts to $5.46. 




YPSEY'S START IN LIFE. 
(Before Taking Dried Blood.) 

Result with Calves Nursed by the Cows: On May 28, 1900, twenty- 
two calves that were running with their dams averaged 174 pounds. On 
October 15, these same calves averaged 422 pounds, or an average daily 
gain per head of 1.77 pounds. The only expense attached to raising these 
calves was the keep of the cows, which was estimated by the owner to be 
$12 per head. Multiplying the average daily gain of these calves by 154, 
the number of days in previous experiment, gives a total gain of 272 pounds 
per head. With $12 as the cost of raising the calf, each 100 pounds of gain 
cost $4.41. 

Results in Feed Lot After Weaning: In the fall all these calves 
were placed in the feed lot, where they were pushed for baby beef. During 



MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG DAIRY STOCK. 



5? 



the seven months under experiment, the skim milk calves gained 440 pounds 
per head, the whole milk calves 405 pounds per head, and the calves nursed 
by the cows, 422 pounds per head. 

This experiment shows that the feed cost of raising a good skim milk 
calf need not exceed $5.25 in contrast to $15.75 for a whole milk calf and $8 
for one nursed by the dam. The skim milk calf becomes accustomed to 
eating both grain and roughness early in life, is handled enough to be gentle, 
and when transferred to a feed lot is ready to make rapid and economical 
gains. 

Dried Blood as a Tonic for Young Calves: For over two years the 




TPSEY AS A YEARLING. 
(After Taking Dried Blood.) 

Kansas Experiment Station has used dried blood in connection with its 
experiments in feeding calves. In March, 1899, one of our cows gave birth 
to a calf weighing 86 pounds. This calf was allowed to suck for several 
weeks, to assist in reducing the inflammation in the dam's udder. On ac- 
count of poor quality and quantity of milk, the calf did very poorly, and 
to save its life it became necessary to remove it from the dam. With the 
ordinary treatment accorded our calves he grew worse and worse, and when 
79 days old weighed only ninety pounds, or four pounds heavier than at 
birth. Although no one would have given ten cents for the calf at this 
time, an effort was made to bring him out. He was given castor oil, laudanum, 



58 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

fresh eggs, calf meal, and, as a last resort, dried blood. With the blood the 
calf commenced to improve, and in a short time was gaining at the rate of 
nearly fourteen pounds per week, and not infrequently as high as seventeen 
to eighteen pounds per week. When a year old he weighed 578 pounds — 
a pretty good record for a calf that gained only four pounds for the first 
seventy-nine days of its existence. The dried blood consumed during parts 
of three months amounted to seven and one-half pounds. At two cents 
per pound, the cost was fifteen cents. 

In October, 1900, a heifer belonging to the Agricultural College dropped 
her first calf. The calf was small and sickly, and for the first few weeks 
did very poorly, as is shown by the fact that on December 1 it weighed two 
pounds less than on November 1. For a few weeks its life was in a very 
critical condition, but when induced to eat a little dried blood with its milk 
it began to improve and has been making fair gains ever since. 

Dried blood is not only good for a weak calf, but is an excellent remedy 
for any calf subject to scours. The Kansas Experiment Station purchases 
many young calves. Frequently these calves arrive at the Station badly 
affected with the scours; a little dried blood always brings about a cure. Re- 
cently a test was made with five calves that happened to be scouring at 
the same time. With two of these calves dried blood was fed after reducing 
the regular feed of milk. With the other three the dried blood was fed 
without changing the supply of milk. In the former case the calves re- 
covered from the scours after two feeds; in the latter after three feeds. With 
seventy head of young calves under experiment at the Kansas Station dur- 
ing the past year, there has not been a single case of scours that dried blood 
has failed to check. 

In feeding dried blood, a teaspoonful at a feed is a great plenty. This 
should be continued until the scours disappear. In case of a weak calf, the 
allowance may be gradually increased to a tablespoonful at a feed. To 
prevent the dried blood from settling to the bottom of the pail, where the 
calf will be unable to get it, it may be stirred in the milk while the calf is 
drinking, or the milk and blood may be fed immediately after being thor- 
oughly mixed. Since dried blood is such a cheap and effective remedy, it 
will pay any one who raises young calves by hand to have a little available 
whenever a calf shows signs of disorders in its digestive tract. It can be 
obtained from any of the large packers. When ordering, state that the 
blood is wanted for feeding purposes. 

Dehorning Young Calves: With the possible exception of pure 
bloods it is well to dehorn the calves while young, preferably when three or 
four days old. As soon as the button can be felt beneath the skin clip off 
the surrounding hair; then take a stick of caustic potash, wrap all but one 
end with paper, to protect the hand, moisten the exposed end in water and 
rub gently over the button, until the skin becomes slightly raw and the calf 
smarts a little under the operation. In a few days a scab will form, soon 
to disappear, leaving the animal without horns. Usually one application 



- MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG DAIRY STOCK. 59 

is ample, but, should the horns start to grow, the operation can be repeated. 
This is by far the easiest and most humane way of dehorning cattle. Care 
should be exercised not to allow any of the dissolved caustic potash to run 
down over the hair and injure the eyes or skin. 

Relieving Calves from Flies: During the hot summer months 
flies are a constant torment to young calves. For two seasons the Ento- 
mological Department of the Kansas Agricultural College has been experi- 
menting and compounding various substances, in order to produce an ef- 
fective and economical mixture which, when applied to the surface of an 
animal, would ward off the flies. As a result of these experiments, they 




SKIM MILK HEIFERS RAISED FOR THE DAIRY. 

Average Weight, 5lM Pounds at One YearOld. 

have succeeded in producing the following formula, which seems to answer 
the purpose reasonably well: Resin, 1£ pounds; laundry soap, 2 cakes; 
fish oil, ^ pint; enough water to make three gallons. Dissolve the resin in 
a solution of soap and water; add the fish oil and the rest of the water. 
Apply with a brush. This mixture will cost from seven to eight cents per 
gallon, and may be used for either calves or cows. One-half pint of this 
mixture is considered enough for one application for a cow; a calf, of course, 
would require considerably less. It will be more economical to apply this 
only to the parts of the animal not reached by the tail. At first it will 



60 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

probably be necessary to give two or three applications per week, until the 
outer ends of the hair become coated with the resin. After that retouch 
those parts where the resin is rubbed off. 

MANAGEMENT AFTER WEANING. 

Feeding: Skim milk can be profitably fed to calves until they are 
five or six months old, and when milk is plenty even longer. Weaning 
from milk should be done by gradually reducing the allowance; at least one 
week should be consumed in the change. If pastures containing plenty of 
feed and water are available young dairy stock could ask for no better 
quarters. If weaning occurs in winter they should be supplied with plenty 
of nutritious rough feed, such as alfalfa, red clover, cow-pea hay or soy bean 
hay. These can be supplemented to advantage with sorghum hay, corn 
stover, Kafir-corn stover, millet, timothy, orchard grass or prairie hay. It 
is very desirable to have plenty of leguminous crops, like the first four men- 
tioned, to furnish plenty of protein to develop bone and muscle. Heifers 
intended for future usefulness in the dairy need very little or no grain after 
weaning until they drop their first calves. The object is to develop large 
frames and large paunches. This can be better and more economically 
done with roughness than with grain. In the winter of 1900-01 a small 
herd of grade Guernsey heifers were wintered in excellent shape on alfalfa 
and sorghum without grain. 

Shelter: Under conditions existing in Kansas a shed open to the 
south is ample protection for young dairy stock. Hardiness is one of the 
very essential points to develop in dairy cattle. This cannot be done where 
the young stock are kept in as warm and close quarters as is usually neces- 
sary for the milch cow. In northern climes the open shed may not be suf- 
ficient but the object should be to come as close to it as the climate will 
permit. 

Inoculating for Black Leg: A large number of calves are lost every 
year from black leg. Protective inoculation is the only successful way of 
combating this disease. Experiments at the Kansas Station show that 
the death rate is more than seven times as great before as after inoculation. 
A man is running too much risk in allowing his heifers to go uninoculated. 
If the reader cannot procure vaccine for inoculation from his own Experi- 
ment Station he can probably get it of the United States Department of 
Agriculture or from some commercial manufacturers advertised in the stock 
and dairy papers. 

Breeding: Dairy heifers are nearly always stunted and frequently 
injured more or less for life if they are bred to calve before they are two 
years old. If the heifer was a spring calf it would be better to breed her 
to calve in the fall following her second birthday. Fall calving is profitable 
in more ways than one. When fresh, a cow will give a good flow of milk 
even on dry feed. In the spring the stimulating effect of the green grass 
will keep up and even increase the flow. A cow calving in the spring will 



MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG DAIRY STOCK. 



61 



usually shrink very materially in her milk flow when changed from pasture 
to dry feed in the fall. Again the cow calving in the fall produces the largest 
amount of butterfat when prices are the highest. A fall calf will usually 
fare better than his spring sister. The farmer has more time to give it the 
attention that it needs, flies are not so bad and in the spring it is read}' to 
go to pasture. Much depends in getting the dairy heifers in the habit of 
calving at the time of year when they will bring in the most profit. 

General Care: The yards, sheds and barns in which the young dairy 
stock are kept should be so situated that water will readily drain away, that 




HALF GUERNSEY HEIFER. 
Raised on Skim Milk. 

sunlight will find an abundant entrance, and if possible so that cold winds 
of the north and northwest will not reach them. The shed or barn should 
be well bedded. While it is not desirable to have the main racks for hay 
under the shed they should be located in as well protected spot as possible. 
Where racks are constructed to prevent the cattle from wasting it, enough 
hay may be hauled in at one time to last several days. When ice forms on 
the drinking water, tank heaters are very desirable. They cost but little, 
require only a small amount of fuel and are easily cared for. These heaters 
will keep ice from forming in the severest weather, and the stock will drink 
much more water with evident satisfaction. 



"The great high-road of human welfare lies along 
the old highway of steadfast well-doing ; and they who 
are the most persistent, and work in the true spirit, will 
invariably be the most successful. Success treads on 
the heels of every right effort." — Samuel Smiles. 



62 



ECONOMIC FEEDING AND CARE OF DAIRY COWS, WITH 

INSTRUCTIONS AND EXAMPLES OF HOW 

TO FORMULATE DAIRY RATIONS. 



BY T. L. HAECKER, PROFESSOR OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY 

OF MINNESOTA. 

St. Anthony Park, Minn. 

American literature dealing with the feeding of domestic animals is . 
largely based upon the teachings of Dr. Emil V. Wolff, a German Scientist, 
who nearly half a century ago, published the results of his investigations as 
to the kind and amount of nutrients needed by domestic animals in mak- 
ing growth, maintaining the body and returning animal products. In 
his feeding standards the amount of organic matter and disgestible nutrients 
needed by various animals is given in great detail, and the standard daily 
ration for an average cow in milk, basing the weight at 1,000 pounds, was 
fixed at 24 pounds of organic matter and of digestible nutrients, 2.5 pounds 
of protein, 12.5 pounds of carbohydrates, and .4 of a pound of ether extract 
or what is commonly termed fat. 

In the application of this standard to feeding practice it has gradually 
become apparent that the amount of protein stated in the formula or stand- 
ard, for a dairy cow, was often more than was really needed by one weigh- 
ing 1,000 pounds. 

A formal deviation from Wolff's standard appeared in bulletin 
38, of the Wisconsin Experiment Station, by Woll, who collected data 
from over 100 dairymen and submitted a proposed American standard 
ration for dairy cows based upon the average obtained from the rations 
fed. Atwater and Phelps of the Connecticut Station made a special study 
of this subject during several winters and submitted a standard which 
seemed to give best results in their investigation. Dr. C. Lehmann, of 
the Berlin (Germany) Agricultural College, modified the Wolff standard 
according to the quantity of milk the cow gives. The wisdom of such a 
standard is obvious, for a cow giving a large flow of milk requires more 
nutriment, other things being equal; than one giving a smaller flow. 

63 



64 



THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 



AMERICAN AND GERMAN FEEDING STANDARDS FOR DAIRY 

COWS. 

DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS PER DAY PER 1,000 POUNDS LIVE WEIGHT. 





Dry 
matter. 


Digestible nutrients 


Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio. 


RATION. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Carbo- 
hy- 

drates. 


Ether 

ex- 
tract. 


Wolff original (German) feeding 
ration 


Lbs. 

24.0* 
24.5. . 

25 . 0* 

25 . 
27.0 
29.0 

32.0 
18. '0 


Lbs. 

2.5 
2.15 

2.5 

1.6 

2.0 
2.5 

3.3 

.7 


Lbs. 

12.5 
13.27 

12 to 13 

LO.O 

11.0 
13.0 

13.0 
8.0 


Lbs. 

.4 
74 

5 to 8 

• 

.3 
.4 
.5 

.8* 
.1 


1:5.4 
1:6.9 

1:5.6 

1:6.7 
1:6.0 
1:5.7 

1:4.5 
1:11.8 


Woll proposed American ration . . 
Atwater and Phelps proposed 

standard 

Wolff-Lehmann modified stand- 
ard: — 

I. When giving 11 lbs. 

of milk dailv 

II. When giving 16^ lbs. 
of milk dailv 

III. When giving" 22 lbs. 

of milk dailv 

IV. When giving 27J lbs. 

of milk dailv 

Standard maintenance 

ration 



*Orsranic mutter. 



Upon examining the table, it will be observed that there is a general 
agreement in the standards submitted except that Woll's proposed stand- 
ard contains .35 of a pound less protein, and .34 of a pound more fat or 
ether extract than the original Wolff standard. The Atwater-Phelps pro- 
posed standard varies the ether extract from .5 to .8 of a pound. The excess 
of ether extract in these two proposed standards is doubtless due to the 
fact that American feed stuffs contain a larger supply of this nutrient. 
The standard proposed by Dr. Lchmann appears to have been merely a 
mathematical deduction based upon the assumption that, for example, 
a cow weighing 1,000 pounds requires .7 of a pound of digestible protein 
daily for maintenance of the body and .081+ of a pound of protein for each 
pound of milk yielded; for 1.60 pounds protein prescribed for a cow giving 
11 pounds of milk daily, less .7, the amount needed for maintaining the 
body, leaves .9 of a pound of protein available for the production of 11 
pounds of milk, and .9-h11=.081+. Again, if a cow yielding 22 pounds 
of milk requires 2.5 pounds of digestible protein daily and she requires 
.7 of a pound for maintenance there is left 1.8 pounds of protein available 



ECONOMIC FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS. 



65 



for milk production, and 1 .8-=- 22=. 081+, the amount of protein required 
for one pound of milk according to Dr. Lehmann. 

During the winter of 1894-5, at the Minnesota Station, an experiment 
was made with dairy cows, comparing various feeding stuffs, during which 
less protein was fed than is prescribed in the various feeding standards, 
and it was therefore a practical test as to whether cows required as much 
protein as the standards call for. All feed stuffs used were subjected to 
chemical analysis, every ration was weighed out daily to each cow, and 
each milking was weighed and tested with the Babcock milk test. It may 
therefore be assumed that the data obtained are fairly accurate. 

The following table gives the daily average of dry matter and digest- 
ible nutrients consumed and milk yielded and average per cent, butterfat in 
each cow's milk from November 19, 1894, to February 10, 1895 — 84 days. 



COW. 





Digestible 




Dry 
matter. 


Pro- 


Carbo- 
hv- 


Fat. 




tein. 


drates. 




20.53 


1.70 


10.98 


.45 


22 . 53 


1.87 


12.08 


.49 


20 . 08 


1.63 


10.72 


.43 


20 . 53 


1.70 


10.98 


.45 


23 . 23 


1.98 


12.44 


.51 


26.91 


2.25 


14.50 


.58 


20 . OS 


1.63 


10.72 


.43 


31.49 


2.64 


16.92 


.69. 


26.22 


2.14 


14.10 


.55 


23.29 


1.90 


12.42 


.50 


28.34 


2.38 


15.22 


.61 


28.37 
24.30 


2.39 


15.28 


.62 
.53 


2.01 


12.03 



Milk 
daily 

Lbs. 



Per 

cent, 
fat. 



Pro- 
tein 
to lib 
milk 



Betty 

Dora 

Beckley 

Tricksey .... 
Houston .... 
Sweet Briar. . 

Olive 

Topsy 

Lou 

Qui dee 

Lydia 

Countess . . . 

Average 



10.03 
15.02 
13.44 
16.78 

25 . 00 
30.81 
27.26 
44.39 
38.01 
25 55 
32 . 02 
45 . 27 

26 . 96 



4.1 



.109 
.083 
.077 
.071 
.053 
.049 
.039 
.041 
. 035 
.045 
.052 
.034 

.05 



The daily consumption of dry matter ranged from 20.08 pounds to 
31.49, and averaged 24.30, being very near the amount fixed in the stand- 
ards. The amount of digestible protein provided ranged from 1.63 pounds 
to 2.64 pounds, and averaged practically 2 pounds, while the carbohy- 
drates and ether extract varied but little from the standard. Since the 
flow of milk was large and remarkably uniform, and the cows were ap- 
parently well nourished, it may be assumed that the nutrients provided 
were ample. It will be observed that none of the cows had as much pro- 
tein in proportion to milk yielded as is prescribed in Dr. Lehmann's 
modification of the Wolff standard, except Betty and Dora, that were near 
the close of their period of lactation, and gave milk containing over 6 per 
cent, of butterfat. It is probable that these cows and some others received 



66 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



more protein than they needed for the work they were doing, but of this 
there is no evidence. The average amount of protein consumed, after 
deducting .7 of a pound for maintenance of body, for each pound of milk 
produced, is .05 of a pound. This offers strong evidence that cows do not 
need as much protein as is prescribed in the feeding standards. Since 
this experiment ended the 10th of February, there may be still a doubt 
as to whether the cows could maintain a normal flow of milk during the 
remainder of the winter on such a light supply of protein. Fortunately 
the cows were started on another experiment the 11th of February, com- 
paring timothy with prairie hay, which covered a period of 70 days ending 
the 21st of April, which was only about two weeks before they were turned 
to pasture. The following table gives the daily consumption of nutrients 
and yield of milk of each cow: 





Dry 
matter. 


Digestible. 


Milk 
daily 

Lbs. 


Per 

cent, 
fat 


Pro- 


COW. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 


Fat. 


tein 

to 1 lb. 

milk. 


Beekley 

Houston 

Tricksev 

Sweet Briar 

Reddy 

Belle 

Olive 

Topsy 


21.19 
25.24 
19.61 
27.00 
20.94 
20.56 
21.15 
31.93 
27.00 
27.57 
22.73 
29.22 


1.68 
2.14 
1.56 
2.21 
1.69 
1.76 
1.67 
2.59 
2.21 
2.26 
1.85 
2.40 


11.10 
13.35 
10.33 
14.21 
11.01 
10.89 
11.12 
16.79 
14.10 
14.49 
11.94 
15.50 


.51 

.64 
.47 
.67 
.51 
.50 
.51 
.78 
.67 
.68 
.55 
.72 

.60 


13.17 
24.88 
15.73 
26.09 
14.49 
19.38 
21.20 
40 . 82 
31.46 
27.93 
25.81 
41.80 


5.59 
4.38 
5.34 
2.28 
5.21 
4.14 
4.12 
3.69 
3.67 
3.57 
3.49 
2.53 


.082 
.061 
.066 
.056 
.075 
.056 
.053 
.043 


Lou 

Lydia 

Quidee 


.045 
.054 
.048 


Countess 


.040 


Average 


24.51 


2.00 


12.90 


25.23 


4.07 


.048 



There are features in this experiment which have a direct bearing on 
the feeding standards. One is the small amount of protein fed, the other 
is the large and uniform flow of milk during the winter. There was only 
one cow that received as much protein as is given in the original Wolff 
standard, and she gave during the second period, which covered 70 days, 
an average daily yield of 40.82 pounds of milk with 2.59 pounds of protein, 
while the Wolff-Lehmann standard prescribed 3.3 pounds of protein for a 
daily yield of 27.5 pounds of milk. Countess consumed 2.40 pounds of 
protein and gave 41.80 pounds of milk daily and after deducting the amount 
of protein calculated for maintenance of the body, she used at the rate of 
only .04 of a pound of protein to a pound of milk, being less than half the 



ECONOMIC FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS. 



67 



amount prescribed in the above standard, and the whole herd required only 
at the rate of .048 of a pound. 

Making a summary of the results of the two periods cited we have the 
following: 





Dry 

matter. 


Digestible nutrients 
daily. 


Milk. 




Pro- 
tein. 


Carbo- 

hy- 
drates. 


Ether 

ex- 
tract. 


daily 
Lbs. 


Daily average of nutrients consumed 
Period I 


24 . 30 
24.51 


2.01 
2.00 


12.03 
12.90 


.53 
.60 


26 96 


" II 


25 . 23 


Total 


48.81 
24.40 
13.00 


4.01 


24.93 


1.13 

.56 

.10 

.46 
.017 


52 19 






Average . . . 


2.00 
.67 


12.46 
6.69 


26 09 


Needed daily for body maintenance 




Available daily for milk production . 
Nutrients to 1 lb. of milk 


11.40 
.44 


1.33 
.05 


5.77 
.22 


26.09 







From this we learn that in a herd where the daily average yield of milk 
ranges from 10 to 43 pounds, and the quality of the milk from that con- 
taining 2.45 per cent, of butterfat to 6.7 per cent, after making allowance 
for food of maintenance, at the rate of .7 of a pound of digestible protein, 
7 pounds of digestible carbohydrates and .1 of a pound of ether extract, 
per 1,000 pounds of live weight, the nutrients used to a pound of milk test- 
ing 4 per cent, fat, was .05 of a pound of protein, .22 of a pound of carbo- 
hydrates and .017 of a pound of ether extract or fat. With this definite 
information at hand it becomes an easy matter for the feeder to calculate 
about how much of each kind of nutrients is required to provide for a 
given flow of milk of fairly average quality. 

Food of Support. The nutrients an animal uses in rebuilding the 
tissues of the body as they wear out day by day, in generating heat and 
providing energy to carry on all involuntary movements of the internal 
organs, is termed the food of support or maintenance. The amount of 
food an animal needs for this purpose depends upon its size, disposition 
and environment. 

The larger the animal, other things being equal, the more food is needed 
for maintenance, though not quite in proportion to the increase in weight. 
That is; a small animal requires relatively more food for this purpose than 
does a large one. An animal being constitutionally timid, irritable, or dis- 
contented will need more than one having a docile, contented disposition. 



68 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

One in uncomfortable quarters will use more than one that is made com- 
fortable. 

The factors generally used to express the daily needs of a cow weigh- 
ing 1,000 pounds, for food of support, is of protein .7 of a pound, carbo- 
hydrates 8 pounds, and of ether extract or fat .1 of a pound. These are 
used by the author with the exception that, of carbohydrates, only 7 pounds 
are allowed because there is ample proof that it is sufficient and more than 
enough for this purpose. Especially is this the case with American food 
stuffs that contain fatty matters in excess. 

PRACTICAL FEEDING SUGGESTIONS. 

Compounding Rations. The object in formulating a ration is to 
provide sufficient bulk to satisfy the appetite and feeding capacity and 
furnish the amount of each nutrient needed for the work a cow is doing. 
If the ration lacks in bulk she will be discontented; if it contains an excess 
of nutriment needed for the maintenance of the body and milk yielded, a 
gradual gain in weight will follow, and if it is short of the required amount of 
nutriment there will be a decrease in the flow of milk. 

Proportion of Roughage to Concentrates. Since it is highly im- 
portant that a cow should, at all times, have enough food to satisfy the ap- 
petite, the proportion of coarse feed to grain must be adjusted to her actual 
needs. When she is dry or yielding a small mess of milk, but little grain 
will be needed, say from 2 to 4 pounds daily with enough coarse feed to 
satisfy her. If she is doing just medium work, one-third of the nutrients 
should be provided by the concentrates and two-thirds by the roughage; 
when in full flow and giving a large yield, about half the nutrients in the 
ration should be provided by the concentrates. If it is the aim to retain a 
cow in the dairy during her natural life, this proportion should be main- 
tained; but if a maximum yield for only a few years is desired, two-thirds 
of the nutrients may be provided by the concentrates. Such methods of 
feeding may be practiced with advantage where cows are purchased for 
the purpose of using them one or two years in a dairy and then replacing 
them with others fresh in milk. 

Palatability. In formulating a ration due regard should be had to 
its palatability. A cow will give better return if she relishes her food. It 
stimulates the appetite and aids digestion. To this end forage should be 
cut early and not exposed to sunshine any longer than is absolutely ne- 
cessary. Dews and sunlight in alternation will bleach forage, reduce its 
palatability and digestibility. The ration should be composed of a reason- 
able number of feed stuffs, since a mixture is relished better than only one 
kind of grain or roughage, though frequent changes in a ration should be 
avoided since this causes imperfect digestion and assimilation. So adjust 
the supply of food that the ration can be made from two kinds of roughage 
and several varieties of grain and then make no more changes during the 
the winter than is necessary. If an appetizing, well balanced, fixed ration 
can be fed all winter, better results will be obtained than by frequent changes 



* 



ECONOMIC FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS. 69 



in the composition of the ration. vSueculent feed such as roots and silage 
is greatly relished and stimulates the appetite and the flow of milk. It 
also aids digestion by keeping the cow in better physical tone. 

Order of Feeding. It is of great importance that strict regularity 
should be observed both in feeding and in milking, in order to secure the 
greatest degree of contentment in the herd. If cows are fed at stated in- 
tervals they will not be worrying for food until the time for feeding arrives, 
and if it is then given to them in proper quantity they will eat it and then 
lie down, chew the cud, and sleep or rest contentedly until the time for an- 
other meal. First give the grain mixture, and milk while they are eating 
it. This routine is recommended because with some cows the milk comes 
more freely while they are eating that portion of their ration which has 
the most relish. Cured roughage should be fed after milking because it 
fills the air in the barn or stable with dust. Succulent food, like silage and 
roots, should also be fed after milking because of the odor that it gives out. 
Feeding twice a day will bring better returns than more frequent and waste- 
ful feeding. Give half the concentrates arid half the roughage in the morn- 
ing and half in the evening. Cows will soon become accustomed to this 
routine. In the winter they should be allowed to spend the day in the stall, 
and for two or three hours during mid-day they should not be disturbed. 
Turning them out into a yard or giving them access to a straw stack or 
field of corn stalks will cause them to shrink in milk no matter how much 
or how well they may be fed in the morning and evening. No more food 
should be given than they will eat up clean. The mangers should be 
absolutely clean and free from any food during the day and night. 
FORMULATING RATIONS. 

Having the table showing the dry matter and the digestible nutrients 
in 100 pounds of American feed stuffs given by Professor Henry in a pre- 
ceding chapter, the feeding standards and the modifications suggested in 
the feeding experiment reviewed, and the general suggestions offered in 
regard to feeding practice, we are prepared to take up the details in formu- 
lating rations adapted to the work a cow is expected to do. 

As an example, let us assume that we are to prepare a ration for a cow 
weighing 1,000 pounds and giving 10 pounds of milk daily, and that we 
have on hand clover hay, fodder corn, corn and barley. The first question 
that presents itself is how much of each of the three nutrients must be pro- 
vided for the production of the milk and maintenance of the body. It has 
been shown that cows use .05 of a pound of protein to a pound of average 
milk. , Digestible , 

Carbo- 

Protein hydrates Fat 

For 1 pound of milk 05 .22 .017 

For 10 pounds of milk 50 2.20 .17 

For food of maintenance 70 7 . 00 .10 

Nutrients needed in the ration 1 .20 9 .20 .27 



70 THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 

Thus we find that the ration should contain of digestible nutrients, 1.20 
of protein, 9.20 pounds of carbohydrates and .27 of a pound of ether ex- 
tract or fat. Since the cow is doing light work the larger portion of the 
nutrients should be provided in the roughage. We therefore use 10 pounds 
of red clover hay. The table given by Prof. Henry tells us that in 100 
pounds of hay, there are 6.8 pounds of digestible protein. Dividing this by 
100 we find .068 of a pound of protein in 1 pound of hay, and multiplying 
this by 10, the number of pounds to be fed daily, we have .68 of a pound 
protein. In 100 pounds of the hay there are 35.8 pounds of carbohydrates, 
in 1 pound .358, and in the 10 pounds 3.58 pounds. Making similar cal- 
culations with the ether extract in 100 pounds of the hay, we find that in 
the 10 pounds there is .17 of a pound. We next take the 10 pounds of 
fodder corn. We see by the table that a hundred pounds contains, of pro- 
tein 2.5; of carbohydrates 34.6, and of fat 1.2; and by a similar calculation 
we find that in the 10 pounds of fodder corn there are nutrients as follows: 
protein .25, carbohydrates 3.46, ether extract .12. In making these cal- 
culations we have also discovered that in dividing the number giving the 
nutrients in a hundred pounds of any feed by 100, is simply removing the 
decimal two points to the left, and that it can then be multiplied by the 
number of pounds to be used in the ration. As an illustration: we choose 
to use 2 pounds of ground corn meal in the ration. From the table we find 
that in 100 pounds of corn there are 7.9 pounds of protein or .079 in 1 pound, 
and .158 in the 2 pounds, and in the same way the other nutrients are found. 
Not desiring to buy any mill feed unless it is necessary, 2 pounds of barley 
meal are added to the ration. No attention has been paid to the dry matter 
in the ration because this point is always adjusted if the suggestions in re- 
gard to methods of feeding are observed. At first it seems as though for- 
mulating rations were a complicated matter, but such is really not the case. 
By a little practice one soon finds it simple and becomes familiar with the 
composition of all ordinary feed stuffs. Tabulating the data obtained 
we have the following formula: 

, Digestible > 

Lbs. Pro. C.-H. Fat 

Clover hay 10 .68 3.58 .17 

FodderCorn 10 25 3.46 .12 

Com 2 .16 1 . 33 .08 

Barley 2 .17 1.31 .04 

1.26 9.68 .41 
This ration provides all the nutrients a little in excess of the cow's 
needs for a daily yield of 10 pounds of milk, if she is kept quiet, and in com- 
fortable quarters; but if she were allowed to roan: over fields, exposed to 
extreme cold or raw strong wind or cold rains, she might need nearly all the 
nutrients in the ration for food of support. 

Now let us suppose that there are a number of cows to be fed and that 
some are giving 15 pounds of milk daily, others 20 or possibly as high as 



ECONOMIC FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS. 71 

40 pounds. To adjust the ration to the varying needs of cows is where 
we encounter difficulties under the feeding standards. One tells us that 
we should feed 2.5 pounds of protein daily, another proposes 2.15, another 
tells us to feed 1.6 of a pound of protein when a cow yields 11 pounds of 
milk, 2 pounds when yielding 16.5 pounds of milk; but what should be fed 
for intermediate yields is not stated. Just at the critical point where a 
feeder needs some definite guide he is left to shift for himself. If it is per- 
missible to state that a cow requires 1.6 pounds of protein when yielding 
11 pounds of milk daily, the license will apply to factors applicable to any 
yield of fairly similar milk. Having found the nutrients required for 
a pound of milk and the maintenance of the body, rations can readily be 
adjusted, approximately to the needs of each animal. 

Having found a ration adapted to a cow yielding 10 pounds of milk, 
let us adjust it to a cow yielding 15 pounds. Taking the footings of the 
first ration we must select some food stuff or some mixture that will pro- 
vide five times the nutrients required for one pound of milk, or, pro. .25, 
C. H. 1.10, fat .09. By trial it is found that 1 pound each of bran and 
shorts or bran and middlings will answer. Turning again to the table 
giving the composition of feeding stuffs, we find that a pound of bran con- 
tains .129 of a pound of protein, .40 of carbohydrates and .03 of fat, and 
that 1 pound of shorts contains .122 of protein, .50 of carbohydrates and 
.04 of fat. Adding this to the ration we have the following: 

, Digestible , 

Lbs. Pro. C.-H. Fat 

Ration for 10 pounds of milk 1 .26 9.68 .41 

Bran 1 .129 .40 .03 

Shorts 1 .122 .50 .04 

Ration for 15 pounds of milk 1.51 10 . 58 .48 

In like manner the ration can be adjusted to any yield of milk by add- 
ing at the rate of two pounds of the mixture to each additional 5 pounds 
of milk yielded. In general feeding practice, one and a quarter pounds 
of the grain mixture to three pounds of milk yielded will bring satisfactory 
results. 

If the roughage in the ration will approximately provide the nutrients 
needed for food of maintenance, then the grain mixture may be so pro- 
portioned that 2 pounds of it will contain the nutriment needed for 5 pounds 
of milk. 

— —Digestible v 

Food. Lbs. Pro. C.-H. Fat 

Corn Stover 12 .20 3 . 89 .08 

Clover Hay 8 .54 2 . 86 .14 

Roughage 20 .74 6 . 75 .22 

Grain Mixture 8 1 .03 4.48 .34 

1.77 11.23 .56 
The roughage and 8 pounds of the grain mixture will answer for a cow 



72 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

giving 20 pounds of milk daily. For a daily yield of 30 pounds of milk 
12 pounds of meal would be required. 

Tows giving a large yield of milk should always be provided with roots 
of some kind : or silage, since it aids digestion and keeps them in good phy- 
sical tone. Fresh cows should always receive a liberal supply of protein 
to afford them an opportunity to increase in the flow of milk. When 
more protein is fed than is actually needed, it may stimulate the lacteal 
functions to a larger flow at each successive lactation, so while no direct 
benefit may be noticed during the first lactation, beneficial results may 
become manifest in succeeding lactations. The young cow also needs a 
surplus of protein with which to mature the body and give nourishment 
to the calf she carries. So in compounding a ration, due consideration 
should be given to these requirements. 

It is not considered necessary to formulate a large number of rations, 
for the aim of this portion of the manual is simply to show how much nutri- 
ment is required for milk production, in what proportion nutrients should 
be combined, how to make the proper balance between concentrates and 
roughage for the work a cow is doing, and how to feed and care for the cow 
to secure the maximum yield at a minimum cost. 

In our first example, which was given to show the methods of calcu- 
lating rations, we incidentally found that with clover hay as a roughage it 
was not necessary to resort to mill products containing a high per cent, 
of protein to maintain the proper balance between protein and carbohy- 
drates. 

As an illustration of this, a ration will be made with alfalfa hay and 

farm grains. ( Digestible , 

Food. Lbs. Pro. C.-H. Fat 

Alfalfa 10 1.10 3.96 .12 

Stover 10 .17 3.24 .07 

Corn 4 .32 2.67 .17 

Barley 4 .35 2 . 62 .06 

1.94 12.49 .42 

In the ration preceding this it required 8 pounds of the mixed meal 
for a daily yield of 20 pounds of milk and in this ration with 8 pounds of 
corn and barley sufficient nutrients are found for a cow giving 25 pounds 
of milk daily. If wheat is fed in place of corn and barley the ration will 
contain 2.11 pounds of protein and 12.73 pounds of carbohydrates, being 
almost an ideal ration so far as composition is concerned ; but only one kind 
of grain in a ration is not relished as well as when a variety is fed. There 
are many localities in our country where corn does not do well but where 
barley is a good crop. In such localities a ration composed of alfalfa and 
ground barley will be found quite satisfactory. A little bran and shorts 
might be added if available. 

Farmers in northern latitudes are beginning to learn that by raising 
more protein, feed bills are reduced. In localities where there is much 



ECONOMIC FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS. 73 

moisture in the air, as is the case near the great lakes and sea coast, peas 
can be grown to good advantage, both for roughage and for pea meal, which 
is a most excellent milk feed. But it must be admitted that the average 
market price of peas makes it expensive feed, and that as a rule if they are 
sold the money will buy more protein in bran, gluten meal and oil meal, 
than there is in the peas. In the interior, where the atmosphere is com- 
paratively dry and the temperature is high, the cow pea and soy bean are 
rapidly coming into favor. The hay from these plants is fairly relished 
by cattle and the bean and pea meal are excellent concentrates for dairy 
cows. With cow pea or soy bean hay, farm grains can also be used 

as concentrates. Digestible ( 

Food. Lbs. Pro. C.-H. Fat 

Cow pea hay 10 1 . 08 3 . 82 11 

Corn Stover 10 .17 3 . 24 07 

Corn and Barley 8 .67 5 . 29 23 

1.92 12.35 .41 

This ration is about equal to the preceding in which alfalfa was used. 
Soy bean in composition is similar to the cow pea except that it contains 
a trifle less protein and considerable more fat. 

Having briefly considered rations containing a legume for roughage 
let us now substitute the most common hay — timothy. We will use the 
same amount of roughage so their comparative merits will be more apparent. 

, Digestible , 

Food. Lbs. Pro. C.-H. Fat 

Timothy 10 .28 4 . 34 .14 

Stover 10 .17 3.24 .07 

.45 7.58 .21 

In the alfalfa and stover there were 1.27 pounds of protein, while the 
timothy and stover contain only .45 of a pound and 7.58 of carbohydrates. 
From this we learn that the 8 pounds of meal that are to be fed in this ration 
must contain about 1.5 pounds of protein or nearly 20 per cent, of that 
important nutrient. We also notice that only about 4.75 pounds of carbo- 
hydrates are to be added. That the 8 pounds of meal is to contain about 
6.50 pounds of nutrients. If we use corn and barley the ration will fall 
far short of protein and have an excess of carbohydrates. If bran and 
oats are used the ration will be short both in protein and carbohydrates, 
because both of these feed stuffs contain a small percentage of» disgestible 
nutrients. In order to meet the proper balance between the protein and 
carbohydrates, we must use concentrates containing a large percentage of 
digestible matter, and one must contain a large percentage of protein and 
the other a high percentage of carbohydrates. The person experienced 
in formulating rations at once looks to corn and its by-products to meet 
this requirement, for he knows that corn meal contains a high per cent. 
of carbohydrates and that gluten meal and gluten feed, a by-product of 



74 THE CREAMERY PATRON^ HANDBOOK. 

corn, contain a very high per cent, of protein, and that both contain a high 
per cent, of digestible matter. If we add 2 pounds of corn and 6 pounds 
of gluten feed we find that the ration will contain more protein and less 
carbohydrates than is needed for a daily yield of 25 pounds of milk; and 
if 3 pounds of corn and 5 of gluten feed are fed there will be a shortage in 
protein and an excess of carbohydrates. So the proper balance is between 
these two. We conclude, therefore, to try 2.5 of corn and 5.5 of gluten 
meal. Now this presents a new phase of our work, and we therefore go 
into the details in making the calculations. One pound of corn meal 
contains .079 of protein, .667 of carbohydrates and .043 of fat, and multi- 
plying these several numbers by 2.5 we get as a product .1975 of protein, 
1 .667 of carbohydrates and .1075 of fat. In one pound of gluten feed there 
are of protein .233, of carbohydrates .507, and of fat .027, and multi- 
plying these numbers by 5.5 we get as a product 1.2815 protein, 2.788 of 
carbohydrates and .1488 of fat. By adding the two products to the nu- 
trients in the timothy and stover we have the following ration: 

, Digestible > 

Food. Lbs. Pro. C.-H. Fat 

Roughage 20 . .45 7 . 58 .21 

Corn 2.5 .20 1.67 .11 

Gluten Feed 5.5 1.28 2.79 .15 

1.93 12.04 .47 

While the ration is a trifle short in carbohydrates for a daily yield 
of 25 pounds of milk, this can easily be made good by bedding with bright 
straw. Even well fed cows will eat some of the litter, especially if they can 
reach over into an adjoining stall for it. 

With prairie hay, marsh hay and the corn plant as roughage, it is neces- 
sary to make up the concentrates from half to two-thirds of such mill pro- 
ducts as gluten feed, oil meal, gluten meal and cotton seed meal, if a large 
flow of milk is to be maintained. For a medium flow, bran, shorts, mid- 
dlings, dry brewers' grains, oat feed and cotton seed will answer. Farmers, 
as a rule, do not take kindly to buying mill feed, and prefer to feed such 
hay as timothy, prairie or marsh with corn and oats, or corn and bran for 
the concentrates. Let us see what these feeds will provide for. An average 
cow can take about 18 pounds of hay and 8 pounds of grain. 

, Digestible , 

Food. Lbs. Pro. C.-H. Fat 

Timothv 18 .50 7.81 .25 

Corn 3 .24 2.00 .13 

Oats 5 .46 2.37 .21 

1.20 12.18 .59 

This ration will be good for about ten pounds of milk. This method 

of feeding largely accounts for the fact that the average cow yields only 

from 125 to 150 pounds of butter a year. There is much said about farmers 



ECONOMIC FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS. 75 

getting better cows. What benefit would the milk producer get by 
investing in better cows when such feeding methods are almost universal. 
Farmers should first learn how to get all that a common cow is capable of 
producing before employing the dairy bred cow. As a matter of fact, the 
average cow is a better dairy animal than the average man is a dairyman. 
At any time 5 pounds of oats can be exchanged for as many pounds of bran, 
let us substitute bran for oats. 



Food. Lbs. 

Hay • 18 

Corn 3 

Bran 5 



Pro. 


Digestible , 

C.-H. Fat 


.50 
.24 
.65 


7.81 .25 
2.00 .13 
2.00 .17 



1.39 11.81 .55 



By making this change we have a ration that is good for about 40 per 
cent, more milk, and by adding one pound of such feeds as oil meal, gluten 
meal or cotton seed meal the milk value of the ration would be about doubled. 
It is not claimed that if a cow has been giving only ten pounds of milk with 
the former ration she will give twice as much by feeding the latter; cows 
do not respond to feed in that way. But the information we give is that 
1.20 pounds of protein daily will maintain a flow of ten pounds of milk, 
while 1.69 pounds of protein is good for 19 pounds. Comparisons have 
been made with bran and oats where both rations contained more protein 
than was actually needed for the milk yielded, and in such trials there was 
a slight yield in favor of the oats, probably due to the stimulating property 
in oats and its larger per cent, of digestible matter. 

When cows are doing full work in the dairy, more grain is needed than 
has been given in the rations. A cow yielding about 24 pounds of 5 per 
cent, milk would need one containing nutrients as follows: 



Food. Lbs. 

Prairie Hay 12 

Corn 6 

Bran 5 

Oil Meal 1 

Mangels 24 



, 


Digestible > 


Pro. 


C.-H. Fat 


.35 


4.98 .14 


.47 


4.00 .26 


.65 


2.00 .17 


.29 


.33 .07 


.26 


1 . 29 .02 



2.02 12.60 .66 



We have received the best results from rations made in about the pro- 
portions given. Dairy bred cows coming fresh in the fall, comfortably 
housed, a little daily outing, regularly fed and milked, should average 360 
pounds of butter for the year. 

For a little heavier work, it would be better to reduce the corn and 
feed proportionally more bran. 



, 


Digestible s 


Pro. 


C.-H. Fat 


.40 


5.81 .17 


.10 


1.33 .09 


.17 


1.31 .03 


1.29 


4.01 .34 


.31 


1.51 .03 


2.33 


13.97 .66 



76 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 



Food. Lbs. 

Wild Hay 14 

Corn 2 

Barley 2 

Bran 10 

Roots 28 



This ration is especially adapted for steady, heavy work. A cow can 
take such a ration all winter without any material shrinkage in milk or 
gain in weight, if she is properly cared for in other respects. A cow re- 
ceiving such a ration and doing corresponding work when fresh, may be so 
mismanaged that she will be a stripper by spring and have added 200 pounds 
to her weight, it is good for an average daily yield of 40 pounds 2.5 per 
cent, milk, 37 pounds 3.5 per cent, milk or 30 pounds of 4.5 per cent. milk. 

Another ration that has given very good and steady yield is the fol- 
lowing: 

Food. Lbs. 

Wild hay 8 

Corn Silage 20 

Bran 6 

Barley -1 

Oats , 3 

Oil Meal 1 

2.10 12.36 .70 

During the winter 1S95-6, the Minnesota Station herd received this 
ration, and during that year the cows that were also in the feeding experi- 
ment reviewed in this article, yielded 363 pounds of butter during that lacta- 
tion year, while the year following they gave 360.44 pounds of butter, 
on the average, with a daily supply of 2.59 pounds of protein. 

Since gluten feed and gluten meal are rapidly coming into favor among 
our most progressive dairymen, 4 pounds of gluten feed will be substituted 
for the 6 pounds of bran and the 1 pound of oil meal in the following ration: 



Food. Lbs. 

Wild hay 10 

Corn Silage 30 

Barley . 4 

Oats 3 

Gluten Feed 4 



, 


Digestible .. 


Pro. 


C.-H. Fat 


.23 


3 . 32 . 10 


. 18 


2.26 .14 


.77 


2.41 .20 


.35 


2.62 .06 


.28 


1.42 .13 


.29 


.33 .07 



, 


Digestible , 


Pro. 


C.-H. Fat 


.35 


4.98 .14 


.27 


3.39 .21 


.35 


2 . 62 .06 


.28 


1.42 .13 


.93 


2.03 .11 



2.18 14.44 .65 



By making this change and increasing the roughage, we get a ration 
that will answer for a larger flow of milk and make a material reduction 



ECONOMIC FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS. 77 

in cost. In feeding this ration we should consider it advisable to change 
the proportion of grain to roughage, because with it cows would be apt 
to convert feed into gain in body weight, if 14 pounds of grain were fed. 
The gluten meal and gluten feed should always be fed with either barley, 
oats or bran, because the former are short in ash. The ration will answer 
for a daily yield of 30 pounds of milk. The oats may be eliminated be- 
cause it is about the most expensive feed, and the gluten feed increased 
to 6 pounds. 

Food. Lbs. 

Wild hay 10 

Corn Silage 30 

Barley 4 

Gluten feed 6 

2.37 14.03 .57 

By making the change we get a ration adapted to a daily yield of 33 
pounds of milk and at a reduction in cost. Barley is also generally dearer 
than bran, and most dairymen can get bran, so we will give a formula with 
bran and "luten feed. 



Food. Lbs. 

Wild hay 10 

Corn Silage 10 

Bran .' 5 

Gluten feed 5 



, 


Digestible 


, 


Pro. 


>C. 


-H. 


Fat 


.35 


4 


.98 


.14 


.27 


3 


39 


.21 


.35 


2 


62 


.06 


1.40 


3 


.04 


.16 



, 


Digestible- 


> 


Pro. 


C. 


-H. 


Fat 


.35 


4 


.9,S 


.14 


.27 


3 


39 


.21 


.65 


2 


.00 


.17 


1.17 


2 


.54 


.14 



2.44 12.91 .66 

This is an ideal ration since it is composed of feed stuffs that can be 
secured by nearly every dairyman in the land, is cheap, contains all the 
nutrients in about the right proportion both for milk giving and growing 
the foetus. Cows can be fed all winter and all their lifetime to their full 
limit without danger of fattening, contracting garget, getting foundered 
or shortening their time of usefulness. It is good for a daily yield of milk 
from 25 to 50 pounds, according to quality of milk and size of cow. The 
hay may be any kind of prairie, or marsh, timothy, red top, barley, oats, 
millet or sorghum. The silage may be either corn, karfir corn or sorghum. 
In place of the wild hay, fodder corn may be used, by increasing it to 15 
pounds. The different feed stuffs should, however, be given very nearly 
in the proportions stated. When hay is fed give one part hay, one 
part grain and three parts silage. One cow may need hay, 8 pounds, silage 
24, grain 8. Another may require 16 pounds hay, 48 pounds of silage 
and 16 pounds of grain. It is by such methodical feeding that cows re- 
turn in dairy products from two to three times the cost of the feed. 

If it is desired to furnish a ration which will contain more farm grains 



78 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

and at the same time be adapted for a still larger yield of milk, the ration 
may be formed as follows: 

, Digestible 1 

Food. Lbs. Pro. C.-H Fat 

Roughage 40 .62 8.37 .35 

Corn 3 .24 2.00 .13 

Barlev 3 .17 1.31 .03 

Gluten meal 5 1.61 2.06 .13 

2.64 13.74 .64 
This ration furnishes ample nutriment for from 35 to 45 pounds of 
milk daily, and it can be readily adjusted to any yield, since one pound of 
the grain mixture contains enough protein for 4 pounds of milk, but it 
should be observed that of carbohydrates it has only enough for two pounds 
of milk. 

It is not considered necessary to further illustrate how rations may be 
made from the many feed stuffs that have not been used in the formulae 
submitted, since the chief object was to show the nutrients required for 
milk production and how to combine food stuffs so the ration will furnish 
the cow the material she needs in milk making and not lumber up the diges- 
tive tract with things she has no use for. 

For the convenience of feeders in determining the nutrients needed for 
the production of a given daily yield of milk testing about 4 per cent, 
butter fat, the following table is submitted: 

FEEDERS GUIDE FOR RATIONS. 

Co-efficients for food of maintenance per hundredweight of cow and 
for one pound of milk of average quality; also digestible nutrients required 
for a given number of pounds of milk. 

, Digestible , 

Pro. C.-H. Fat 
For food of maintenance per cwt. of cow 07 .7 .01 

Nutrients for one pound of milk 05 .22 . 017 

For 10 pounds of milk 50 2 . 20 .17 

For 15 pounds of milk 75 3 . 30 .26 

For 20 pounds of milk 1 . 00 4.40 .34 

For 25 pounds of milk 1 . 25 5 . 50 .43 

For 30 pounds of milk 1 . 50 6 . 60 .51 

For 35 pounds of milk 1 . 75 7.70 .56 

For 40 pounds of milk 2 . 00 8.80 .69 

For 45 pounds of milk 2 . 25 9.90 .78 

For 50 pounds of milk 2 . 50 11 . 00 .85 

For 55 pounds of milk 2.75 12.10 .93 

For 60 pounds of milk 3 . 00 13.20 1 . 00 

For 65 pounds of milk 3 . 25 14 . 30 1.12 

THE CARE OF THE COW. 
In order to secure a large yield of milk it is quite as important that 
the cow or herd is handled properly as that proper feeding should be 



ECONOMIC FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS. 79 

practiced. We know of many instances where the best of dairy cows were 
used and where good methods of feeding were practiced, and still results 
fell far short of what might reasonably have been expected, simply because 
the animals did not receive that kindly treatment which is so essential to a 
cow giving lots of milk for a long time. The herd as a whole should al- 
ways be moved slowly. Never hurry a cow, or strike her or speak loud 
or harshly. A gentle voice and a caressing touch is quite as potent as 
is digestible protein. If you so handle the cows that they are fond of you, 
you have learned one of the most important lessons that lead to profitable 
dairying. The most successful milk producers are in close touch with 
every cow in the herd. The milk producer has to do with motherhood, in 
which affection always plays an important part. A cow's affection for the 
caff prompts the desire to give milk; if you gain her affection she will de- 
sire to give you milk. If you have not been in the habit of caressing the 
cows the time to inaugurate the practice is when they approach the time 
of calving, as it is at that particular time that they take kindly to groom- 
ing and gentle rubbing of the udder. 

Each cow should have a name which should always be spoken when 
approaching her. This one point counts for much in -the successful handling 
of a herd. Suppose the cows are slowly filing into the barn and you see 
that Rose is about to go into the wrong stall, a quick call of "Rose" will 
attract her attention and she will forget that she was about to go into her 
neighbor's stall to steal a mouthful of her feed. If Rose, when in the 
yard, is about to hook another member of the herd, and just at that moment 
hears her name called, she will forget what she was about to do. Again 
suppose the herd is slowly wending its way down the lane to the pasture, 
and someone has thoughtlessly left a side gate open leading into a grain field. 
If Rose is in the lead, and as you see her filming toward the open gate a quick, 
sharp call of "Rose!" will exert a wonderful influence in bringing her back 
into line. It is by such methods that a herd can be gradually taught to do 
the right thing, save you many steps and at the same time bring a larger re- 
turn. 

During the eight or ten weeks that cows go dry their food should be 
chiefly roughage. A daily allowance of two pounds of bran or oats or a 
mixture of 2 parts each of bran and oats and one part linseed meal or corn 
oil meal makes a proper feed for a cow near calving. Some roots, cabbage, 
pumpkins or squashes are also very good. Highly carbonaceous roughage — 
such as straw and corn stalks are not good at this particular time. These 
with cold water, cold drafts or laying out at night on damp or frozen ground, 
are the chief causes of caked udder or garget. 

For ten days preceding the time of calving the cow should be kept 
in a comfortable, well littered box stall or pen, in which there is no manger. 
The feed should be given in a box or basket which should be removed after 
the feed is taken. The coarse feed may be put in the corner and no more 
should be given than she will eat. This rule should, however, be observed 



80 THE CREAMERY PATRONS HANDBOOK. 

at all times. Throwing large quantities of roughage before a cow, gets her 
into the bad habit of eating only the most appetizing parts and wasting much 
feed. It is a good practice to take a lantern and go the rounds of the barn 
before retiring for the night to see that everything is as it should be. 

When the calf is dropped leave it with the dam a few hours tc afford 
her an opportunity to lick it. 

If the cow gives milk containing only an ordinary amount of solids 
and butterfat, the calf may be permitted to take what nourishment it wants 
the first time; but if the cow gives very rich milk, only a little should be 
allowed, otherwise there is danger of having a bad case of indigestion on 
your hands the second day. Just at this time much attention should be 
be given the cow by way of grooming, not with a currycomb, but with -a 
brush, and frequent rubbing of the udder. This will prove beneficial to 
the cow and profitable to you. After the calf has taken nourishment once 
it should be removed, preferably when the dam is not in the stall or pen, 
for it is better that she does not associate vou with the loss of her calf, and 
that she may more readily transfer her affection to you. By removing the 
calf at once, it is soon forgotten and thus disturbance is minimised. The 
first mess for the cow. should be about half a pail of whole or preferably 
ground oats, which has been allowed to stand covered for half an hour after 
pouring hot water over it. There are stimulating properties in the oats 
which will aid her in passing the afterbirth. If oats is not to be had give 
her a warm bran mash^ containing a pint of oil meal or corn oil meal or a 
handful of ground flax or a pint of boiled flax. The degree of her usefulness 
during this period of her lactation depends largely on your skill in bring- 
ing her to a full feed and full flow of milk. It takes a cow about three weeks 
to reach her full flow and the same time should be taken in getting her to 
full feed. If nature takes its proper course the afterbirth will pass the first 
day, though this may not take place until the second day, and in the mean- 
time the oats or bran mash should be fed twice a day for two days, when a 
gradual change may be made to the regular ration. The amount that 
should be given at first depends, of course, upon the cow. But in a general 
way a half of a ration of the concentrates will answer, permitting her to 
satisfy her appetite on clover or pea hay. She has, if properly fed, stored 
up in her body a surplus of carbonaceous nutriment upon which nature in- 
tended that she should draw and thus make it unnecessary for her to eat 
heating carbohydrates to add more heat to an already feverish condition 
of the system. So if the carbonaceous nourishment is scant the system 
will the more quickly be reduced to normal temperature and the liability to 
caked bag or milk fever will be lessened. The linseed meal or flax was 
recommended with a view of keeping the bowels in a laxative condition. 
Special care should be exercised in not exposing the cow to cold drafts at 
this critical period. If it seems necessary to leave the barn or stable door 
open for a while the cow should be blanketed, but this should be removed 
soon after the door is closed, for if she becomes accustomed to a blanket 



ECONOMIC FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS 



81 



she will be more liable to take cold. During the period when the cow is 
being brought to full feed she should be encouragt i to consume a large 
quantity of roughage, and to this end a variety of tempting morsels may be 
given her. 

While the routine of the barn work may be adjusted to your convenience, 
strict regularity should be observed in all things to maintain as much as 
possible the pace of the cow's system, secured when she is in full flow. If 
feeding or milking is delayed, the elaboration of milk is interrupted and 
the flow lessened. So in order to get a full yield for a long time everything 
should be done with strictest regularity. The milking should be done in 
such a way that a cow will receive the largest possible satisfaction from this 
semi-daily event. 

Since many of our readers may be out of practice in figures and find 
it irksome to calculate the nutrients in a given quantity of food stuff and 
the cost of a ration, the following tables are submitted giving the digestible 
nutrients in a given number of pounds of the various common standard 
feed stuffs, the cost of a pound of feed at a given price per bushel, and the 
cost of one pound at a given price per ton : 

TABLE GIVING COST OF ONE POUND AT A GIVEN PRICE PER TON. 



Price 


Cost 


Price 


Cost 


Price 


Cost 


Price 


Cost 


Price 


Cost 


Price Cost 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of of 


1 Ton 


1 Lb. 


1 Ton 


1 Lb. 


1 Ton 


1 Lb. 


1 Ton 


1 Lb. 


1 Ton 


1 Lb. 


1 Ton 1 Lb. 


$ 


Cents 


$ 


Cents 


$ 


Cents 


$ 


Cents 


$ 


Cents 


$ 


Cents 


.25 


.0125 


.57 


.0285 


.89 


.0445 


6.25 


.3125 


14.25 


.712 


22.25 


1.112 


.26 


.0130 


.58 


.0290 


.90 


.0450 


6.50 


.3250 


14.50 


.725 


22.50 


1.125 


.27 


.0135 


.59 


.0295 


.91 


.0455 


6.75 


.3373 


14.75 


.737 


22.75 


1.137 


.28 


.0140 


.60 


. 0300 


.92 


.0460 


7.00 


.3500 


15.00 


.750 


23.00 


1.150 


.29 


.0145 


.61 


.0305 


.93 


.0465 


7.25 


.3625 


15.25 


.762 


23.25 


1.162 


.30 


.0150 


.62 


.0310 


.94 


.0470 


7.50 


.3750 


15 . 50 


.775 


23.50 


1.175 


.31 


.0155 


.63 


.0315 


.95 


.0475 


7.75 


.3875 


15. 7F 


.787 


23.75 


1.187 


.32 


.0160 


.64 


.0320 


.96 


.0480 


8.00 


.4000 


16.00 


.800 


24.00 


1.200 


.33 


.0165 


.65 


. 0325 


.97 


.0485' 


8.25 


.4125 


16.25 


.812 


24.25 


1.212 


.34 


.0170 


.66 


.0330 


.98 


.0490 


8.50 


.4250 


16.50 


.825 


24.50 


1.225 


.35 


.0175 


.67 


. 0335 


.99 


.0495 


8.75 


.4375 


16.75 


.-837 


24.75 


1.237 


.36 


.0180 


.68 


.0340 


1.00 


.0500 


9.00 


.4500 


17.00 


.850 


25.00 


1.250 


.37 


.0185 


.69 


.0345 


1.25 


.0625 


9.25 


.4625 


17.25 


.862 


25.25 


1.262 


.38 


.0190 


.70 


.0350 


1.50 


.0750 


9.50 


.4750 


17.50 


.875 


25.50 


1.275 


.39 


.0195 


.71 


.0355 


1.75 


.0825; 


9.75 


.4875 


17.75 


.887 


25.75 


1.287 


.40 


.0200 


.72 


. 0360 


2.00 


.1000 


10.00 


.5000 


18.00 


.900 


26.00 


1.300 


.41 


. 0205 


.73 


.0365 


2.25 


.1125, 


10.25 


.5125 


18.25 


.912,i 26.25 


1.312 


.42 


.0210 


.74 


.0370 


2.50 


.1250 


10.50 


. 5250 


18.50 


.925 26.50 


1.325 


.43 


.0215 


.75 


.0375 


2.75 


.1375; 


10.75 


. 5375 


18.75 


.937 26.75 


1 . 337 


.44 


. 0220 


.76 


. 03S0 


3.00 


.1500' 


11.00 


. 5500 


19.00 


.950|l 27.00 


1.350 


.45 


.0225 


.77 


.0385 


3.25 


.1625 


11.25 


.5625 


19.25 


.962!' 27.25 


1.362 


.46 


.0230 


.78 


.0390 


3.50 


.1750 


11.50 


.5750 


19 . 50 


.975 1 27.50 


1.375 


.47 


. 0235 


.79 


.0395 


3.75 


.1875 


1 1 . 75 


.5875 


19.75 


.987 


27.75 


1.387 


.48 


.0240 


.80 


. 0400 


4.00 


.2000 


12.00 


.6000 


20.00 


1.000 


28.00 


1.400 


.49 


.0245: 


.81 


.0405 


4.25 


.2125 


12.25 


6125 


20.25 


1.012 


28.25 


1.412 


.50 


.02501 


.82 


.0410 


4.50 


.2250' 


12.50 


.6250 


20.50 


1.025 


28.50 


1.425 


.51 


.0255 


.83 


.0415 


4.75 


.2375' 


12.75 


. 6375 


20.75 


1.037 


28.75 


1.437 


.52 


.0260 


.84 


.0420 


5.00 


.2500, 
.2625' 


13.00 


.6500 


21.00 


1.050 


29.00 


1.450 


.53 


.02651 


.85 


.0425 


.5 . 25 


13.25 


.6625 


21.25 


i:062 


29.25 


1.462 


.54 


.0270, 


.86 


. 0430 


5.50 | 


.2750 


13.50 


.6750 


21.50 


1.075 


29.50 


1.475 


.55 


.0275 


.87 


. 0435 


5.75 


.2875 


13.75 


.6875 


21.75 


1.087 


29.75 


1.487 


.56 


.0280 


.88 


.0440 


6.00 


.3000 


14.00 


. 70001 


22.00 


1.100 


30.00 


1.500 



TABLE GIVING COST OF ONE POUND AT A GIVEN PRICE AND WEIGHT PER 

BUSHEL. 





When a Bushel Weighs 


When a Bushel Costs 


32 
Lbs. 

1 Lb. 
Costs 


42 
Lbs. 

1 Lb. 
Costs 


46 
Lbs. 

1 Lb. 

Costs 


48 
Lbs. 

1 Lb. 
Costs 


50 
Lbs. 

1 Lb. 

Costs 


52 
Lbs. 

1 Lb. 
Costs 


56 

Lbs. 

1 Lb. 
Costs 


58 
Lbs. 

1 Lb. 
Costs 


60 
Lbs. 

1 Lb. 
Costs 


70 
Lbs. 

1 Lb. 

Costs 


Cents 

10 

11 


Cents 
.312 
344 


Cents 

.237 

.262 

.286 

.309 

.333 

.357 

.381 

.405 

.428 

.452 

.476 

.500 

.524 

.547 

.571 

.595 

.619 

.643 

.667 

.690 

.714 

.738 

.762 

.787 

.809 

.833 

.857 

.881 

.905 

.928 

.952 

.976 

I mil 

1.024 

1.048 

1.071 

1.095 

1.119 

1.143 

1.167 

1.190 

1.214 

1.238 

1.262 

1.286 

1.309 

1.333 

1.357 

1.381 

1 . 405 

1.428 


Cents 

.217 

.239 

.261 

.283 

.304 

.326 

.348 

.369 

.391 

.413 

.435 

.456 

.478 

.500 

.522 

. 544 

.565 

.587 

.609 

.630 

.652 

.674 

.696 

.717 

.739 

.761 

.783 

.804 

.826 

.848 

.869 

.891 

.913 

.935 

.956 

.978 

1.000 

1 . 022 

1.043 

1.065 

1.087 

1.109 

1.130 

1.152 

1.174 

1.196 

1.217 

1.239 

1.261 

1.283 

1.304 


Cents 
.208 
229 
^250 
.271 
.292 
.312 
.333 
.354 
.375 
.396 
.417 
.437 
.458 
.479 
.500 
.521 
.542 
.563 
.583 
.604 
.625 
.646 
.667 
.687 
.708 
.729 
.750 
.771 
.792 
.812 
.833 
.854 

.s^s 

.896 

.917 

.937 

.958 

.979 

1.000 

1.021 

1.042 

1.062 

1.083 

1.104 

1.125 

1.146 

1.167 

1.187 

1.208 

1 . 22!) 

1.250 


Cents 

.20 

22 

.24 

.26 

.28 

.30 

.32 

.34 

.36 

.38 

.40 

.42 

.44 

.46 

.48 

.50 

.52 

.54 

.56 

.58 

.60 

.62 

.64 

.66 

.68 

.70 

.72 

74 

.76 

78 

.80 

.82 

.84 

.86 

.88 

.90 

.92 

.94 

.96 

.98 

1.00 

1.02 

1.04 

1.06 

1.08 

1.10 

1.12 

1.14 

1.16 

1.18 

1.20 


Cents 
.192 
.212 
.231 
.250 
.269 
.288 
.308 
.327 
.346 
.365 
.385 
.404 
.423 
.442 
.461 
.481 
.500 
.519 
.538 
.558 
.577 
.596 
.615 
.635 
.654 
.673 
.692 
.711 
.731 
.750 
.769 
.788 
.808 
.827 
.846 
.865 
.884 
.904 
.923 
.942 
.961 
.981 
1.000 
1.019 
1.038 
1.058 
1.077 
1.096 
1.115 
1.134 
1.154 


Cents 
178 
.196 
.214 
.232 
.250 
.268 
.286 
.304 
.321 
.339 
.357 
.375 
.393 
.411 
.428 
.446 
.464 
.482 
.500 
.518 
.536 
.554 
.571 
.589 
.607 
.625 
.543 
.661 
.678 
.696 
.714 
.732 
.750 
.768 
.786 
.804 
.821 
.839 
.857 
.875 
.893 
.911 
.928 
.946 
.964 
.982 
1.000 
1.018 
1.036 
1 . 054 
1.071 


Cents 
.172 
.189 
.207 
.224 
.241 
.259 
.276 
.393 
.310 
.327 
.345 
.362 
.379 
.396 
.414 
.431 
.448 
.465 
.483 
.500 
.517 
.534 
.552 
.569 
.586 
.603 
.620 
.638 
.655 
.672 
.689 
.707 
.724 
.741 
.759 
.776 
.793 
.810 
.827 
.845 
.862 
.879 
.896 
.913 
.931 
.948 
.965 
.983 
1.000 
1.017 
1.034 


Cents 
.167 
.183 
.200 
.217 
.233 
.250 
.267 
.283 
.300 
.317 
.333 
.350 
.367 
.383 
.400 
.417 
.433 
.450 
.467 
.483 
.500 
.517 
.533 
.550 
.567 
.583 
.600 
.617 
.633 
.650 
.667 
.683 
.700 
.717 
.733 
.750 
.767 
.783 
.800 
.817 
.833 
.850 
.867 
.883 
.900 
.917 
.933 
.950 
.967 
.983 

1.000 


Cents 
.143 

157 


12 


.375 


171 


13 


.406 

.437 

.469 

.500 

.531 

.562 

.594 

.625 

.656 

.687 

.719 

.750 

.781 

.812 

.844 

.875 

.906 

.937 

.969 

1.000 

1.031 

1.062 

1.094 

1.125 

1.156 

1.187 

1.219 

1.250 

1.281 

1.312 

1.344 

1.375 

1.406 

1.437 

1.469 

1.500 

1.531 

1.562 

1.594 

1.625 

1.656 

1.687 

1.719 

1.750 

1.781 

1.812 

1.844 

1.875 


.186 


14 


.200 


15. . . 


.214 


16 


.228 


17. . 


.243 


18 


.257 


19 


.271 


20 


.286 


21 


.300 


22 


.314 


23 


.328 


24 


.343 


25 


.357 


26 


.371 


27 


.386 


28 


.400 


29 


.414 


30 


.428 


31 


.443 


32 


.457 


33 


.471 


34 


.486 


35 


.500 


36 

37 


.514 
.528 


38 


.543 


39 


.557 


40 


.571 


41 


.586 


42 


.600 


43 


.614 


44 


.628 


45 


.643 


46 


.657 


47 


.671 


48 


.686 


49 


.700 


50 


.714 


51 


.728 


52 


.743 


53 


.757 


54 


.771 


55 


.786 


56 


.800 


57 


.814 


58 


.828 


59 


.843 


60 


.857 







Note.— The above table is made to aid in determining; the cost of a ration. If it is desired 
to ascertain the cost of a pound of oats when it sells for 23 cents per bushel, follow down the 
column under the heading, "When a Bushel Costs," until the number 23 is reached; then 
to the right to the column headed "32," because there are 32 pounds in a bushel, where .719 
is given as the price of 1 pound of oats. Multiplying this factor by the number of pounds 
of oats to be used in the ration gives 2.157 cents, the cost of 3 pounds of oats. If barley is 
fed, follow the line to the right until the column headed "48" is reached, which gives .479 
as the cost of 1 pound of barley when a bushel costs 23 cents. If 4 pounds of barley are 
fed the cost is 1.916 cents. 

82 



TABLE GIVING POUNDS OF DRY MATTER AND DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS 
CONTAINED IN A GIVEN NUMBER OF POUNDS OF FOOD STUFF 



LBS. 



CORN FODDER 



Composition 



Dry 
Mat- 
ter 



Digestible 



Pro C H. Fat 



CORN STOVER 



Composition 



Dry 

Mat- 
ter 



Digestible 



Pro C. H. Fat 



SORGHUM FODDER 



Composition 



Digestible 



Dry 
Mat- 
ter I Pro C. H. Fat 



2.89 


.125 


1.730 


3.47 


.150 


2.076 


4.05 


.175 


2.422 


4.62 


.200 


2.768 


5.20 


. 225 


3.114 


5.78 


.250 


3.460 


6.36 


.275 


3.806 


6.94 


.300 


4.152 


7.51 


.325 


4.498 


8.09 


.350 


4.844 


8.67 


.375 


5.190 


9.25 


.400 


5.536 


9.83 


.425 


5 . 882 


10.40 


.450 


6.228 


10.98 


.475 


6.574 


11.56 


.500 


6.920 



.060 
.072 
.084 
.096 
.108 
.120 
.132 
.144 
.156 
.168 
.180 
.192 
.204 
.216 
.228 
.240 



2.97 


.085 


3.57 


.102 


4.16 


.119 


4.76 


.136 


5.35 


.153 


5.95 


.170 


6.54 


.187 


7.14 


.204 


7.73 


.221 


8.33 


.238 


8.92 


.255 


9.52 


.272 



10.11 
10.71 
11.30 
11.90 



1.620 
1.944 
2.268 
2.592 
916 
3.240 
3.564 

8SS 

212 
536 
860 

is I 



.289 ! 5.508 
. 306 5 . 832 
.323 6.156 
.340 6.480 



.035 
.042 
.049 
.056 
.063 
.070 
.077 
.084 
.091 
.098 
.105 
.112 
.119 
.126 
.133 
.140 



2.51 
3.02 
3.52 
4.02 
4.53 
5.03 
5.53 
6.04 
6.54 
7.04 
7.54 
8.05 
8.55 
9.05 
9.56 
10.06 



.120 
.144 
.168 
.192 
.216 
.240 
.264 
.288 
.312 
.336 
.360 
.384 
.408 
.432 
.456 
.480 



1.605 

1.926 

2.247 

2.568 

2.889 

3.210 

3.531 

3.852 

4.173 

4.494 

815 

136 

4."! 7 

77S 

099 

420 



LBS. 



TIMOTHY 



RED TOP 



MILLET 



4.34 

5.21 

6.08 

6.94 

7.81 

8.68 

9.55 

10.42 

11.28 

12.15 

13.02 

13.89 

14.76 

15.62 

16.42 

17.28 



140 2.170 


.070 


4.55 


.240 


2.345 


.05 


4.40 


168 2.604 


.084 


I 5.47 


.288 


2.814 


.06 


5.28 


196 3.038 


.098 


1 6.38 


.336 


3.283 


.07 


6.16 


224 3 . 472 


.112 


1 7.29 


.384 


3.752 


.08 


7.04 


252 3 . 906 


.126 


8.20 


.432 


4.221 


.09 


7.92 


280 4 . 340 


.140 


9.11 


.480 


4.690 


.10 


8.80 


308 4 . 774 


.154 


10.02 


.528 


5.159 


.11 


9.68 


336 5 . 208 


.168 


10.93 


.576 


5.628 


.12 


10.56 


364 5.642 


.182 


1 1 . 84 


.624 


6.097 


.13 


11.44 


392 6.076 


.196 


12.75 


.672 


6.566 


.14 


12.32 


420 6.510 


.210 


13.66 


.720 


7 . 035 


.15 


13.20 


448 6 . 904 


224 


14.58 


.768 


7.504 


.16 


14.08 


476 7.378 


.238 


15.49 


.816 


7.973 


.17 


14.96 


5047.812 


.252 


16.40 


.864 


8.442 


.18 


15.84 


532 8 . 246 


.266 


17.31 


.912 


8.911 


.19 


16.72 


560 8 . 680 


.280 


18.22 


.960 


9.380 


.20 


17.60 



.160 2. 
.192 2. 
.22413 
.2563 
.28814. 
.3204 
.352 5 
. 384 5 
.4166 
.448 6 
.480 7 
. 5 1 2 7 
.5448 
.576 8 
. 608 9 
. 640 9 
I 



1 25 
910 
395 

NS0 

365 
850 
335 
820 
305 
790 
275 
760 
245 
730 
2 1 5 
700 



LBS. 



PRAIRIE HAY 
Upland 



PRAIRIE HAY 
Mixed 



PRAIRIE HAY 

Swale 



8.75 
9.62 
10.50 
1 1 . 37 
12.25 
13.12 
14.00 
14.87 
15.75 
16.62 
17.50 



.15 

. IN 

.21 

.24 
.27 
.30 
.33 
.36 
.39 
.42 
.45 
.48 
.51 
.54 
.57 
.60 



2 . 090 
2.508 
2.926 

3 . 344 
3 . 762 
4.180 
4.598 
5.018 
5 . 434 

5 . 852 

6 . 270 
6.688 
7.106 

524 

942 

8 . 360 



070 


4 


20 


084 


5 


05 


098 


5 


89 


112 


i 6 


73 


126 


7 


57 


140 


8 


41 


154 


9 


25 


168 


10 


09 


1 82 


10 


93 


196 


n 


77 


210 


12 


61 


224 


13 


52 


23.S 


14 


36 


252 


15 


21 


266 


16 


05 


280 


lti 


90 



.145 ! 2.075 
.1742. 490 
.2032.905 
.232 3.320 
.26113.735 
.290 4.150 
.3194.565 
. 348 4 . 980 
.3775.395 
.4065.810 
.435 6.225 
.464 6.640 
.493 7.055 
.522j7.470 
.551,7.885 
.580 1 9. 300 



060 


4.31 


072 


5.18 


0S4 


6.04 


096 


6.90 


108 


7.77 


120 


8.63 


132 


9.49 


144 


10.36 


156 


11.22 


168 


12.08 


180 


12.94 


192 


13.81 


204 


14.67 


216 


15.53 


22S 


16.40 


240 


17.26 



.130 2.095 
.1562.514 
.182 2.933 
. 208 3 . 352 
.234 3.771 
.260 4.190 
.286 4.609 
.312 5.028 
.338 5.447 
.364 5.866 
. 390 6 . 285 
.416 6.704 
.442 7.123 
.468 7.542 
.494 7.951 
.520 8.380 



83 



TABLE GIVING POUNDS OF DRY MATTER AND DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS 
CONTAINED IN A GIVEN NUMBER OF POUNDS OF FOOD STUFF— Continued. 



LBS. 



SEDGE HAY 



Composition 



Dry 
Mat- 
ter 



Digestible 



Pro C. H. Fat 



OAT HAY 



Composition 



Dry 
Mat- 
ter 



Digestible 



Pro C. H. Fat 



SOJA BEAN HAY 



Composition 



Dry 
Mat- 
ter 



Digestible 



Pro C. H. Fat 



5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
II 
15. 
16 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 



LBS. 



4.49 

5.39 

6.29 

7.19 

8.09 

8.98 

9.88 

10.78 

11.68 

12.58 

13.48 

14.38 

15.28 

16.17 

17.07 

17.97 



.135 


2 


265 


.162 


2 


718 


.189 


3 


171 


.216 


3 


624 


.243 


4 


077 


.270 


4 


530 


.297 


4 


983 


.324 


5 


136 


.351 


5 


SS9 


.378 


6 


3 12 


.405 


6 


785 


.432 


7 


24S 


.459 


. 


701 


.486 


s 


154 


.513 


8 


607 


.540 


9 


060 



.055 
.066 
.077 
.088 
.099 
.110 
.121 
.132 
.143 
.154 
.165 
.176 
.187 
.198 
.209 
.220 



ALFALFA HAY 



4.55 

5.47 

6.38 

7.29 

8.20 

9.11 

10.02 

10.93 

11.84 

12.75 

13.66 

14.58 

15.49 

16.40 

17.31 

18.22 



.215 
. 258 
.301 
.344 
.387 
.430 
.473 
.516 
.559 
.602 
.645 
.688 
.731 
.774 
.817 
still 



2.320 
2.784 
3.248 
3.712 
4.176 
4.640 
5.104 
5.568 
6.032 
6.496 
6.960 
7.424 
7.888 
8.352 
8.816 
9 . 280 



075 
090 
105 
1 20 
135 
150 
165 
180 
195 
210 
225 
240 
255 
270 
2S5 



ALSIKE HAY 



540 


1 


935 


648 


2 


322 


756 


2 


709 


864 


3 


096 


972 


3 


483 


080 


3 


870 


188 


4 


257 


296 


4 


644 


404 


5 


031 


512 


5 


418 


620 


5 


S05 


728 


6 


192 


836 


fi 


579 


944 


6 


966 


052 


7 


353 


160 


7 


740 



.075 
.090 
.105 
.120 
.135 
.150 
.165 
.180 
.195 
.210 
.225 
.240 
.255 
.270 
.285 
.300 



RED CLOVER HAY 



5 

6 

. 7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 
13 
14 
I.'. 
16 
17 
IS 
1(1 
2(1 



4.58 


.55 


1.980 




5.50 


.66 


2.376 




6.41 


.77 


2.772 




7.33 


.88 


3.168 




8.24 


.99 


3.564 




9.16 


1.10 


3.960 




10.08 


1.21 


4.356 




10.99 


1.32 


4.752 




11.91 


1.43 


5.148 




12.82 


1.54 


5.544 




13.74 


1.65 


5.940 




14.66 


1.76 


6.336 




15.57 


1.87 


6.732 




16.49 


1.98 


7.128 




17.40 


2.09 


7.524 




18.32 


2.20 


7.920 





.060 
.072 
.084 
.096 
.108 
.120 
.132 
.144 
.156 
.168 
.180 
.192 
.204 
.216 
.228 
.240 



51 


.420 


2.125 




42 


.504 


2.550 




32 


.588 


2.975 




22 


.672 


3.400 




13 


.756 


3.825 




03 


.840 


4.250 




93 


.924 


4.675 




84 


1.008 


5.100 




74 


1.092 


5.525 




64 


1.176 


5.950 




54 


1.260 


6.375 




45 


1.344 


6.800 




35 


1.428 


7.225 




25 


1.512 


7.650 




16 


1.596 


8.075 




06 


1.680 


8.500 





.075 
.090 
.105 
.120 
.135 
.150 
.165 
.180 
.195 
.210 
.225 
.240 
.255 
.270 
. 2S5 
. 300 



23 


.340 


1.790 


OS 


.408 


2.148 


93 


.476 


2.506 


78 


.544 


2.864 


62 


.612 


3.222 


17 


.680 


3.5S0 


32 


.748 


3 . 938 


16 


.816 


4.296 


01 


.884 


4.654 


S6 


.952 


5.012 


70 


1.020 


5.370 


55 


1.088 


5.728 


10 


1.156 


6.086 


25 


1.224 


6.444 


Oil 


1.292 


6.802 


94 


1.360 


7.160 



.085 
.102 
.119 
.136 
.153 
.170 
.187 
.204 
.221 
.238 
.255 
272 
'.2S9 
.306 
.323 
.340 



LBS. 



WHEAT STRAW 



OAT STRAW 



RYE STRAW 



.904 
1.808 
2.712 
3.616 
4.520 



.004 
.008 
.012 
.016 

.020 



.363 

.726 

1.089 

1.452 

1.815 



.004 
.008 

.012 
.016 

. 020 



908 
1.816 
•24 
3 . 632 
4.540 



.012 
.024 
.036 
.048 
.060 



.386 

.772 

1.158 

1.544 

1 . 930 



.008 
.016 
.024 
.032 

. 040 



.929 
1.858 
2.787 
3.716 
4.645 



.006 
.012 
.018 
.024 
.030 



.406 

.812 

1.218 

1.624 

2 . 030 



.004 
.008 
.012 
.016 
.020 



84 



TABLE GIVING POUNDS OF DRY MATTER AND DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS 
CONTAINED IN A GIVEN NUMBER OF POUNDS OF FOOD STUFF— Continued. 



LBS. 



CORN SILAGE 



Composition 



Dry 
Mat- 
ter 



Digestible 



Pro C. H. Fat 



SORGHUM SILAGE 



Composition 



Dry 

Mat- 
ter 



Digestible 



Pro C. H. Fat 



CLOVER SILAGE 



Composition 



Dry 
Mat- 
ter 



Digestible 



Pro C. H. Fat 



10 

11 
12 
13 

14 
15 

it; 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
26 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
:;i 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 

10 



2.09 
2.30 
2.51 
2.72 
2.93 
3.13 
3.34 
3.55 
3.76 
3.97 



43 
64 

85 
6.06 
6.27 
6.48 
6.69 
6.90 
7.11 
7.31 
7.52 
7.73 
7.94 
8.15 
8 . 36 



090 


1.130 


.070 


2.39 


.060 


1.490 


.020 


099 


1.243 


.077 


2.63 


.066 


1.639 


.022 


108 


1.356 


.084 


2.87 


.072 


1.788 


.024 


117 


1.469 


.091 


3.11 


.078 


1.937 


.026 


1 26 


1.582 


.098 


3.35 


.084 


2.086 


.028 


135 


1 . 695 


.105 


3.58 


.090 


2 . 235 


.030 


144 


1.808 


.112 


3.82 


.096 


2.384 


.032 


153 


1.921 


.119 


4.06 


.102 


2.533 


.034 


162 


2.034 


.126 


4.30 


.108 


2.682 


.036 


171 


2.147 


.133 


4.54 


.114 


2.831 


.038 


180 


2.260 


.140 


4.78 


.120 


2.980 


.040 


ISO 


2.373 


.147 


5.02 


.126 


3.129 


.042 


ION 


2.486 


.154 


5.26 


.132 


3.278 


.044 


207 


2 . 589 


.161 


5.50 


.138 


3.427 


.046 


216 


2.712 


.168 


5.74 


.144 


3.576 


.048 


225 


2.825 


.175 


5.97 


.150 


3.725 


.050 


234 


2 . 938 


.182 


6.21 


.156 


3.874 


.052 


243 


3.051 


.189 


6.45 


.162 


4.023 


.054 


252 


3.164 


.196 


6.69 


.168 


4.172 


.056 


261 


3.277 


.203 


6.93 


.174 


4.321 


.058 


270 


3 . 390 


.210 


7.17 


.180 


4.470 


.060 


279 


3 . 503 


.217 


7.41 


.186 


4.619 


.062 


2SS 


3.616 


.224 


7.65 


.192 


4.768 


.064 


297 


3.729 


.231 


7.89 


.198 


4.917 


.066 


306 


3 . 842 


.238 


8.13 


.204 


5.066 


.068 


315 


3.955 


.245 


8.36 


.210 


5.215 


.070 


324 


4.068 


.252 


8.60 


.216 


5.364 


.072 


333 


4.181 


.259 


S . S4 


222 


5.513 


.074 


342 


4.294 


.266 


9.08 


.228 


5.662 


.076 


351 


4.407 


.273 


9.32 


.234 


5.811 


.078 


360 


4.520 


.280 


9.56 


.240 


5.960 


.080 



2.80 
3.08 
3 . 36 
3.64 
3. 



4.20 
4.48 
4.76 
5.04 
5.32 
5.60 
5. 
6.16 
6.44 
6.72 
7.00 
7.28 
7.56 
7.84 
8.1 
8.40 
8.68 
8.96 
9.24 
9.52 
9.80 
10.08 
10.36 
10.64 
10.9 
11.20 



.200 
.220 
.240 
.260 
.280 
.300 
.320 
.340 
.360 
.380 
.400 
.420 
.440 
.460 
.480 
.500 
.520 
.540 
.560 
.580 
.600 
.620 
.640 
.660 
.680 
.700 
.720 
.740 
.760 
.780 
. 800 



1.350 
1.485 
1.520 
1.755 
1.890 
2.025 
2.160 
2.295 
2.430 
2.565 
2.700 
2.835 
2.970 
3.105 
3.240 
3.375 
3.510 
3.645 
3 . 780 
3.915 
4.050 
4.185 
4.320 
4.455 
4.590 
4.725 
4.860 
4.995 
5.130 
5.265 
5.400 



.100 
.110 
.120 
.130 
.140 
.150 
.160 
.170 
.180 
.190 
.200 
.210 
.220 
.230 
.240 
.250 
.260 
.270 
.280 
.290 
.300 
.310 
.320 
.330 
.340 
.350 
.360 
.370 
.380 
.390 
.400 



LBS. 



5. 
6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 

10 

11 
12. 
13 
14. 

l.j 

it; 

17. 
18. 
19 
20. 



SUGAR BEETS 



.675 
.810 
.945 
1.080 
1.215 
1.350 
1.485 
1.620 
1.755 
1.890 
2.025 
2.160 
2.295 
2.430 
2.565 
2.700 



.055 
.066 
.077 

. oss 

.099 
.110 
.121 
.132 
.143 
.154 
.165 
.176 
.187 
.198 
.209 
.220 



.510 

.612 

.714 

.816 

.918 

1.020 

1.122 

1.224 

1.326 

1.428 

1.530 

1 . 632 
1.734 
1.836 
1.938 

2 . 040 



.005 
.006 
.007 

. oos 

.009 
.010 
.011 
.012 
.013 
.014 
.015 
.016 
.017 
.018 
.019 
.020 



MANGELS 



.455 

.546 

.637 

.728 

.819 

.910 

1.001 

1.092 

1.183 

1.274 

1.365 

1.456 

1.547 

1.638 

1.729 

1.820 



. 055 


.270 


.066 


.324 


.077 


.378 


. OSS 


.432 


.099 


.486 


.110 


.540 


.121 


.594 


.132 


.648 


.143 


.702 


.154 


.756 


.165 


.810 


.176 


.864 


.187 


.918 


.198 


.972 


.209 


1.026 


. 220 


1.080 



.005 
.006 
.007 
.008 
.009 
.010 
.011 
.012 
.013 
.014 
.015 
.016 
.017 
.018 
.019 
.020 



RUTA-BAGAS 



.570 

.684 

.798 

.912 

1.026 

1.140 

1.254 

1 . 368 

1.482 

1 . 596 
1.710 
1.824 
1.938 
2.052 
2.166 

2 . 280 



.050 
.060 
.070 
.080 
.090 
.100 
.110 
.120 
. 13C 
.140 
.150 
.160 
.170 
.180 
.190 
. 200 



.405 

.486 

.567 

.648 

.729 

.810 

.891 

.972 

1.053 

1.134 

1.215 



. 296 

.3 
1.458 
1.539 
1.620 



.010 
.012 
.014 
.016 
.018 
.020 
.022 
.024 
.026 
.028 
.030 
.032 
.034 
.036 
.038 
.040 



85 



TABLE GIVING POUNDS OF DRY MATTER AND DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS 
CONTAINED IN A GIVEN NUMBER OF POUNDS OF FOOD STUFF— Continued. 





BARLEY 


CORN 


OATS 




Composition 




Composition 


Composition 




LBS. 




















Digestible 




Digestible 




Digestible 




Dry 
Mat- 






Dry 






Dry 














Mat- 








Mat- 










ter 


Pro 


C. H. 


Fat 


ter 


Pro 


C. H. 


Fat 


ter 


Pro 


C H. 


Fat 


1 


.89 


.087 


.656 


.016 


.89 


.079 


.667 


.043 


.89 


.092 


.473 


.042 


2 


1.78 


.174 


1.312 


.032 


1.78 


.158 


1.334 


.086 


1.78 


.184 


.946 


.084 


3 


2.67 


.261 


1.968 


.048 


2.67 


.237 


2.001 


.129 


2.67 


.276 


1.419 


.126 


4 


3.56 


.348 


2.624 


.064 


3.56 


.316 


2.668 


.172 


3.56 


.368 


1.892 


.168 


5 , 


4.45 


.435 


3.280 


.080 


4.45 


.395 


3.335 


.215 


4.45 


.460 


2.365 


.210 


6 


5.35 


.522 


3 . 936 


.096 


5.35 


.474 


4.002 


.258 


5.34 


.552 


2.838 


.252 


7 


6.24 


.609 


4.592 


.112 


6.24 


.553 


4.669 


.301 


6.23 


.644 


3.311 


.294 


8 


7.13 
8.02 


.696 
.783 


5 . 248 
5 . 904 


.128 
.144 


7.13 
8.02 


.632 
.711 


5.336 
6.003 


.344 
.387 


7.13 
8.01 


.736 
.828 


3.784 
4.257 


.336 


9 


.378 


10 


8.91 


.870 


6.560 


.160 


8.91 


.790 


6.670 


.430 


8.90 


.920 


4.730 


.420 


LBS. 


CORN and COB 
MEAL 


RYE 


BREWERS' GRAINS, 
DRIED 


1 


.85 


.044 


.60 


.029 


.88 


.099 


.676 


.011 


.92 


.157 


.363 


.051 


o 


1.70 
2.55 


.088 
.132 


1.20 
1.80 


.058 
.087 


1.77 
2.65 


.198 
.297 


1.352 
2.028 


.022 
.033 


1.84 
2.75 


.314 
.471 


.726 
1.089 


.102 


3 


.153 


4 


3.40 


.176 


2.40 


.116 


3.54 


.396 


2.704 


.044 


3.67 


.628 


1.452 


.204 


5 


4.24 


.220 


3.00 


.145 


4.42 


.495 


3 . 380 


.055 


4.59 


.785 


1.815 


.255 


6 


5.09 


.264 


3.60 


.174 


5.30 


.594 


4.056 


.066 


5.51 


.942 


2.178 


.306 


7 


5.94 


.308 


4.20 


.203 


6.19 


.693 


4.732 


.077 


6.43 


1.099 


2.541 


.357 


8 


6.79 
7.64 


.352 
.396 


4.80 
5.40 


.232 
.261 


7.07 
7.96 


.792 
.891 


5.408 
6.084 


.088 
.099 


7.34 
8.26 


1.256 
1.413 


2.904 
3.267 


.408 


9 


.459 


10 


8.49 


.440 


6.00 


.290 


8.84 


.990 


6.760 


.110 


9.18 


1.570 


3 . 630 


.510 


LBS. 


WHEAT 


BRAN 


SHORTS 


1 


.89 


.105 


.692 


.017 


.88 


.129 


.401 


.034 


.88 


.122 


.50 


.038 


•7 


1.79 


.210 


1.384 


.034 


1.77 


.258 


.802 


.068 


1.76 


.244 


1.00 


.076 


3 


2.68 


.315 


2.076 


.051 


2.65 


.387 


1.203 


.102 


2.65 


.366 


1.50 


.114 


4 


3.58 


.420 


2.768 


.068 


3.54 


.516 


1.604 


.136 


3.53 


.488 


2.00 


.152 


5 


4.47 


.525 


3.460 


.085 


4.42 


.645 


2.005 


.170 


4.41 


.610 


2.50 


.190 


6 


5.37 


.630 


4.152 


.102 


5.31 


.774 


2.406 


.204 


5.29 


.732 


3.00 


.228 


7 


6.26 


.735 


4.844 


.119 


6.19 


.903 


2.807 


.238 


6.17 


.854 


3.50 


.266 


8 


7.16 
8.05 
8.95 


.840 

.945 

1.050 


5.536 
6.228 
6.920 


.136 
.153 
.170 


7.08 
7.96 
8.85 


1 . 032 
1.161 
1.290 


3.208 
3.609 
4.010 


.272 
.306 
.340 


7.05 
7.94 


.976 
1.098 


4.00 
4.50 
5.00 


.304 


9 


.342 


10 


8.82 1.220 


.380 


LBS. 


COTTON SEED 
MEAL 


OIL MEAL 


GLUTEN MEAL 


1 


.92 


.372 


.169 


.122 


.91 


.293 


.327 


.078 


.88 


.321 


.412 


.025 


2 


1.84 


.744 


.338 


.244 


1.82 


.586 


.654 


.146 


1.76 


.642 


.824 


.050 


3 


2.76 


1.116 


.507 


.366 


2 72 


.879 


.981 


.214 


2.64 


.963 


1.236 


.075 


4 


3.67 


1.488 


.676 


.488 


3.63 


1.172 


1.308 


.282 


3.52 


1.284 


1.648 


.100 


5 


4.59 


1 . 860 . 845 


.610 


4.54 


1.465 


1.635 


.350 


4.40 


1.605 


2.060 


.125 


LBS. 


GLUTEN FEED 


GERM OIL Ml 


HAL 


PEAS 


1 


.90 


.233 


.507 


.027 


.90 


.202 


.445 


.088 


.891 .1681 .518 


.007 


2 


1.80 


.466 


1.014 


.054 


1.80 


.404 


.890 


.176 


1.79 .336 1.036 


.014 


3 


2.70 


.699 


1.521 


.081 


2.70 


.606 


1 . 335 


.264 


2.68 .504 1.554 


.021 


4 


3.60 


.932 


2.028 


.108 


3.60 


.808 


1.780 


.352 


3.58 .6722.072 


.028 


5 


4.50 


1.165 2.535 


.135 


4.50 


1.010 


2.225 


.440 


4.4-1 .8402.590 


.035 



86 



COMMERCIAL FEEDING STUFFS. 



BY DR. W. H. JORDAN, DIRECTOR NEW YORK AGRICULTURAL 

EXPERIMENT STATION. 

Geneva, N. Y. 

(An address given before the New York State Dairymen's Association.) 

The trade in commercial feeding stuffs is largely of recent development- 
It is a trade complex in its features, and requires for the proper understand, 
ing of it a great variety of information. In earlier times, only the cereal 
grains in their entire condition were found in commerce; now, by-products 
from a number of manufacturing operations, which consist of parts of various 
seeds, including oil seeds and farm grains, are found in the markets. For 
instance, we have refuses from the manufacture of oil, the manufacture of 
starch and glucose, the manufacture of spirituous liquors, the manufacture 
of breakfast foods, and so on. Many of these materials have an undoubted 
value for feeders of all classes of farm animals. Indeed, some of the by-prod- 
uct commercial feeding stuffs have equal or greater value than the orig- 
inal seeds from which they were produced. At the same time these by- 
products have a greatly unequal value, some of them being almost worthless 
and others possessing the highest quality. Until one of these feeds is in- 
vestigated as to its composition and utility for various kinds of feeding, 
it is an uncertain quantity. It requires, therefore, on the part of the con- 
sumer, a constant watchfulness and search for information concerning 
the newer products which are offered in the markets. One fact which 
renders watchfulness and an intelligent understanding of the feeding stuff 
market so essential, is the numerous mixtures of the various by-product 
materials which manufacturers are constantly compounding as a means 
either of disposing of their manufacturing by-products or of making a low 
cost feed which can be sold at a larger profit than the standard article. 

These numerous feeding stuffs will be found to differ in two ways : ( 1 ) in 
composition and (2) in digestibility. To illustrate, linseed meal contains a 
large proportion of protein and a minor proportion of the non-nitrogenous 
compounds, while hominy feed contains practically no more protein than 
corn meal and a very large percentage of the carbohydrates. Between these 
extremes there are all gradations in the relative proportions of the several 
ingredients. It is not difficult to learn what these differences are and how 
they range when we are dealing with standard articles. When dealing with 
mixtures which pass under the general name of mixed feeds or under pro- 
prietary names, we have nothing to guide us other than the assertions of 

87 



88 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

manufacturers, sometimes of doubtful accuracy, or the safeguards pro- 
vided by law. 

Important differences are also found in the digestibility of these ma- 
terials, and this is a matter of great moment, because the only portion of a 
feeding stuff which is useful to the animal is that which is dissolved by the 
digestive juices and absorbed by the blood. 

Feeding stuff adulteration is widely practiced at the present time. By 
adulteration I mean the introduction into a material of a certain grade of 
something inferior either in nutritive value or in cost. There are those who 
deplore any reference to dishonest practices in trade, such as adulteration, 
because they say it will hurt business. I would vsry much regret injuring 
the business of any honest manufacturer by anything I might say here. 
I wish to bear testimony to the uprightness and straightforward busi- 
ness methods of a large proportion of the feeding stuff manufacturers 
and dealers with whom I come in contact, either directly or by correspond- 
ence. Many of them, yes, the most of them, have as gr^at a desire to main- 
tain their goods up to the standard which they set for them as any class of 
business men have to deal fairly. If adulterations are practiced, it is neces- 
sary to make plain what they are , and if trade is thereby injured, the responsi- 
bility does not lie with the men who search out such dishonest methods, 
or with the consuming public that is made the victim of dishonesty, but it 
lies with the disreputable manufacturers themselves. I, for one, shall not 
hesitate to speak plainly concerning those devices of commercial greed by 
means of which one man defrauds another. The ethics of trade in this 
country need reforming in certain quarters. There is altogether too lenient 
a spirit toward the man who declares that he must practice this or that de- 
ception in order to maintain himself against the competition of the market, 
or who excuses his unwholesome methods by declaring that others do the 
same. We should not cry peace when there is no peace. To-day, there- 
fore, I shall first describe briefly the principal feeding stuffs which are now 
found in our markets, indicate the standards by which we should measure 
these materials, point out some of the ways in which they are adulterated, 
and refer to certain precautions and preventions which must be utilized 
by the farmer in order to protect himself in so complex a trade. 
CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS. 

1. Natural Grains. When the cereal grains and other seeds are 
sold in their unground natural condition, they are easily recognized by all 
who have any familiarity whatever with agricultural matters, and they need 
no comment or description from me. When sold in the ground condition, 
they are at present adulterated to some extent, a matter to which I shall 
refer later. 

2. Oil Meals. Several seeds, such as cottonseed, flaxseed, rapeseed, 
etc., contain very large percentages of oil, which, either by pressure or by the 
use of a solvent, it is possible to remove. These oils have their important uses 
in the arts. It is the residues from their extraction in which we arc interested 



COMMERCIAL FEEDING STUFFS. 89 

as farmers. Cottonseed meal, as well as all other meals from the oil seeds, 
contains practically all the compounds of the seed except the oil. In 
other words the protein compounds and carbohydrates, together with a 
small proportion of the oil, are left behind when the crushed seed is sub- 
mitted to pressure or leached with a light benzol. There is then a concen- 
tration of certain parts of the seed in the waste, and for this reason we 
see the protein in pure cottonseed meal always ranging above 42 per 
cent, and sometimes reaching nearly 50 per cent. The same facts are 
in general true of linseed meal, where the proportion of protein reaches 35 
or 38 per cent. There is no reason to suppose that the compounds which are 
left in the by-products from .the oil seeds are injured for nutrition purposes 
by the pressure, heat or other influences to which they are subjected. 

3. Starch and Glucose Wastes. The seed of Indian com, or, more 
properly, maize seed, contains a very large proportion of starch. Inventive 
ingenuity has discovered mechanical methods for separating this starch 
from other parts of the kernel, which may be sold as such or subjected to the 
action of acids and converted into glucose. As in the case with the oil meals, 
the starch wastes are not injured by the process of manufacture, as the maize 
kernel is only subjected to crushing and to the action of water. There is a 
variety of these wastes from starch manufacture, and concerning them there 
has been much confusion of understanding by people at large. Farmers 
are quite accustomed to simply designate these materials as gluten. 

Starch wastes include three kinds or grades of material. The most 
valuable part is what is properly known as gluten meal, and it consists of the 
flinty portion of the maize kernel which lies directly under the hull and out- 
side of the central portion of the seed, which is more purely starch. Gluten 
meal contains practically as much protein as linseed meal, or from 35 to 37 
per cent. 

Another starch waste is the hull of the maize kernel itself, and it is un- 
doubtedly of less value than the same weight of the entire kernel. This 
hull is sometimes spoken of as sugar corn waste and corn feed, but is more 
properly designated as corn bran. 

Gluten feed, the third form of waste from starch manufacture, is simply 
the mixture of the gluten meal and the corn bran. This material contains 
approximately 25 per cent, of protein. It is important, therefore, for the 
dairyman to clearly understand whether he is buying gluten meal, gluten 
feed or corn bran. There is a great difference in the proportions of the 
constituents of these several materials and an important difference in their 
digestibility. 

4. Brewers' and Distillery Wastes. Sugar is required for the 
manufacture of alcohol, whether it is found in old fashioned New England 
rum or in lager beer. At the present time, this sugar is obtained from our 
cereal grains, chiefly corn, rye and barley. The first thing which is neces- 
sary is the conversion of the starch of these grains into maltose, a form of 
sugar. For instance, the maltster submits moistened barley grains to a 



90 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

certain temperature for a certain length of time, until these grains have 
sprouted and the ferment action in their interior has converted a large part 
of their starch into a soluble sugar. The sprouts which appear on these 
grains are rubbed off, and are known in our markets as malt sprouts. They 
make a useful feeding stuff, carrying about 25 per cent, of protein. The 
grains, minus the sprouts, are crushed and the sugar is extracted, this ex- 
tract afterwards being submitted to a fermentation for the production of 
alcohol. The extracted grains, after drying, are sold under the name brew- 
ers' grain, and contain about the same proportion of protein as malt sprouts. 
There are also found for sale distillery wastes, which are produced by the 
manufacturers of whisky and other liquids of a like character. Here we 
have the characteristic high proportion of protein. 

5. Wheat Offals. No feeding stuffs are more widely or favorably 
known than wheat bran and wheat middlings. These have come to be re- 
garded as standard materials. Formerly they were sold in separate form, 
but now it is the custom in many mills to run the offals from the milling of 
wheat together into one mixture to be sold under the general term mixed 
feed. If the screenings and other inferior mill wastes are not run into this 
mixed feed, the mixing is not disadvantageous to the farmer, perhaps. Many 
mixed feeds, of this class, however, appear to contain a good deal of inferior 
material. 

6. Breakfast Food Wastes. Within the past twenty-five years there 
has been a remarkable increase in the variety and quantity of prepared 
breakfast foods, such as oatmeal, rolled oats and others bearing proprietary 
names. From the manufacture of all of these, there are derived by-products 
which find their way into the market mostly as cattle foods. The by- 
products most important in this connection are those coming from oats. In 
the first place, the manufacturer uses only the largest and heaviest grains, 
and rejects the smaller and lighter grains. The latter are sold back to the 
farmers. From the heavy, larger grains, the hull is removed, the kernel 
itself being all that is used in preparing foods for human consumption. These 
oat hulls should either be burned or sold for some inferior purpose, but so 
far as I can judge, they are finding their way into the market to be used, 
either honestly or dishonestly, in the manufacture of mixed feeding stuffs. 
This will be referred to in discussing adulterations. 

Two by-products from the manufacture of buckwheat flour are buck- 
wheat hulls and buckwheat middlings. The latter of these is a valuable 
feeding stuff, the proportion of protein being practically the same as that in 
gluten feed or the brewers' residues. The hulls are comparatively worthless 
for feeding purposes. Often the middlings and hulls are sold in the mixed 
condition, and in such cases the value of the mixture depends upon the 
proportion of the hulls. 

7. Beet Sugar Wastes. Two new by-product feeding stuffs have 
appeared among us since the introduction of the manufacture of beet sugar 
in this country, viz. : sugar beet pulp and sugar beet molasses. The former 



COMMERCIAL FEEDING STUFFS. 91 

in a fresh condition carries approximately 90 per cent, of water and can 
scarcely be- a profitable feed at any great distance from the factories, owing 
to the great cost of transporting so much useless material. This pulp is 
inferior to the same weight of beets before extracting the sugar, and does not 
differ essentially in its general character from roots and other succulent 
carbohydrate feeding stuffs. It appears that this sugar beet pulp is now 
offered in a dried condition, and if the price is sufficiently low it may 
doubtless be purchased to advantage by those farmers who have an insuffi- 
cient supply of coarse foods. The only ingredient of value in beet sugar 
molasses is the sugar which has not crystallized. This molasses contains 
from 50 to 60 per cent, of sugar, and may be combined advantageously 
with coarse fodders and nitrogenous feeding stuffs in making up a ration 
for various classes of animals. 

8. Homixy Wastes. In the manufacture of hominy quite a portion 
of the maize kernel is rejected, and is known in the market as hominy feed. 
The composition of this by-product is not essentially unlike that of the whole 
maize kernel, and it is very nearly equal to corn meal in feeding value. At 
the present time the price of this feeding stuff as compared with corn meal 
is such that it may be purchased with advantage. 

The above is a brief reference to the principal feeding stuffs found in 
the markets. A determination of the ones which a farmer can most ad- 
vantageously purchase depends upon the ruling prices. There are no hard 
and fast relative values which can be applied to a determination of the 
materials which it is wisest to purchase. It is possible to base a rational 
decision upon a comparison of the proportions of digestible material in 
feeding stuffs of the same class. This does not apply, however, when com- 
paring feeding stuffs of unlike classes. To illustrate, it would not be possible 
to compare the value of corn meal and cottonseed meal on the basis of the 
proportions of digestible matter in the two materials, because the digestible 
matter in the one is so greatly unlike that in the other. 

MIXTURES AND ADULTERATIONS. 

No more important topic in connection with this general subject can 
be brought to your attention than the present quite prevalent practice of 
compounding mixed feeds which contain an inferior ingredient, and of adul- 
terating many of the valuable feeding stuffs which now appear in the markets. 
Let us consider some of the facts which are well known to those who are 
investigating the feeding stuffs trade. 

Let me say, first of all, that I have known of very few instances of the 
adulteration of linseed meal. Up to the present time no feeding stuff has 
been more uniform in its quality than has this one. Inferior cottonseed 
meals appear in the market quite frequently, however. Here the degrada- 
tion of quality is accomplished by grinding hulls with the pure meal. Some 
so-called cottonseed meals have been found on sale carrying less than 30 
per cent, of protein, whereas the proportion should be above 42 per cent a 



92 THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 

least. When such mixtures are sold for what they are, as for instance in 
the case of cottonseed feed, no fraud is perpetrated, and the consumer is 
left to make a free choice. 

So far as I have observed, the only danger of unfair dealing in the sale 
of the wastes from the manufacture of starch from the maize kernel lies in 
a failure to understand clearly the differences in these articles, and conse- 
quently of buying corn bran instead of the more valuable gluten feed or 
gluten meal. I suspect that in some instances finely ground corn bran has 
been sold under the name light gluten, or special gluten, and it would be 
very easy to mix such finely ground corn bran with the gluten meal or gluten 
feed to the advantage of the dealer, because of the lower price of the bran. 

One of the most notorious adulterations now practiced is the mixing 
of ground corn cobs or ground broom corn waste with wheat bran. A sam- 
ple of this character came into my hands the other day. One of the feeds 
licensed in the State of New York is such a mixture, and is guaranteed to 
contain only 11 per cent, of protein, whereas pure bran contains from 15 to 
16 per cent. This adulteration may easily be detected by any one who will 
give a careful study to the general appearance of pure bran, and who has had 
an opportunity to inspect the mixture. A deterioration of wheat offals is 
also brought about by introducing into them various inferior mill wastes. 
The presence of this inferior material is generally made evident by the hulls 
and parts of weed seeds that may easily be seen. 

Taken as a class, various mixed feeds known under a great number of 
names are probably the worst imposition now being practiced upon the 
farmers in this country. In these the inferior ingredient is oat hulls. Oat 
hulls are probably worth less than good cut oat straw. In fact, I consider 
them inferior to any straw whatever. Two years ago we took a large number 
of samples of so-called corn and oat feeds sold in the State of New York, and 
we found very few that were not compounded by the use of a certain pro- 
portion of oat hulls. The immediate responsibility here lies to quite an 
extent with the local millers that are found scattered all over this and 
other states. They can purchase these oat hulls, sometimes unground 
and sometimes ground into a very fine condition so that they are not so 
easily detected, at a very low price, and by introducing 25 per cent, by 
weight of these hulls into corn or hominy, can produce a feed which 
closely resembles genuine corn and oat chop, and which is sold at the 
price of genuine goods. It is not difficult for one who will give the matter 
a little attention to detect the differences between these inferior mixtures 
and genuine corn and oats. The oat hulls present have a different appear- 
ance, and none of the crushed oat kernels can be seen in the oat hull 
mixture. There are sold very generally throughout the country certain 
proprietary feeds which in many cases are a mixture of several materials. 
In many instances, these feeds are mixed by the manufacturers for the 
sole purpose of disposing of their waste products, one of which, oat hulls, 
could not find a sale in the market if not disguised by the presence of 



COMMERCIAL FEEDING STUFFS. 93 

more valuable ingredients. I have lately learned that a New Jersey firm 
is making a mixed feed into which coffee hulls, rice polish and other in- 
ferior materials enter. This fraudulent stuff has been sold in part through 
a New York firm. Is there not good reason for advising consumers to 
avoid all unknown mixtures and buy only standard goods? 

Even the ground cereal grains, such as corn meal, are adulterated. 
Two materials are at present used for adulterating corn meal, one of which 
is hominy feed and the other is corn bran. It may be claimed that the 
mixture of hominy feed with corn meal does not constitute an adulteration, 
because the former is nearly equal in feeding value to the latter. It is an 
adulteration, however, when the hominy feed can be purchased at a con- 
siderably less price than the corn meal, because by selling the former at 
the price of the latter an imposition is practiced upon the consumer. He 
buys at the higher price a material of lower commercial value. 

I have in my possession a circular letter addressed by a prominent 
jobber in the State of New York to millers, explaining to them how, by the 
introduction of ground corn bran into corn meal, they can make corn meal 
at a price which will enable them to compete successfully in the market 
against other millers or dealers. This is also an adulteration which is an 
imposition upon the consumers. Corn bran is sold for much less than corn 
meal at the present time, and has undoubtedly a lower feeding value. It 
is easy to see that the kind of adulteration practiced will be determined by 
the relative prices of feeding stuffs. When two materials similar in ap- 
pearance have quite different selling prices, there is always temptation 
for dishonest dealers or millers to mix the one with the other. 

PRECAUTIONS AND PREVENTIONS. 

At the present time the people of this country are much inclined to 
resort to legislation as a means of curing various evils. Such legislation is 
generally wise. As applied to feeding stuff control, it is of undoubted value. 
First of all, feeding stuff inspection laws have an educational value. 
When the terms of such a law become known, buyers are inclined to give 
a great deal more attention to the composition of feeding stuffs than 
before. This is true, because laws of this nature now on our statute 
books in several states require that manufacturers or dealers shall file with 
some state department the guaranteed composition of their goods, and 
that the goods when sold shall be properly marked with the name of the 
manufacturer and the guaranteed composition of the goods. Through 
these means, and the publications which are occasionally issued as a 
result of the inspection, consumers become more familiar with the compo- 
sition of the various feeding stuffs than would otherwise be the case. 

Moreover, through the guarantees and the proper marking of the various 
brands of feeding stuffs, the purchaser is protected against buying inferior 
materials. To illustrate, cottonseed meal should carry no less than 42 per 
cent, of protein, linseed meal should carry at least 35 per cent., gluten meal 



94 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

about the same, gluten feed from 23 per cent, upwards, malt sprouts and 
brewers' grains about 25 per cent., wheat bran and wheat middlings over 
15 per cent., pure mixed corn and oats over 10 per cent., and so on. Unless 
the protein is kept to approximately these figures, the material is not pure. 
Hulls cannot be introduced into cottonseed meal without lowering the per- 
centage of protein, and the same thing is true of the admixture of ground 
corncobs with wheat bran or any other material. Oat hull mixtures, 
especially those where their components are com meal or hominv feed and 
oat hulls, necessarily carry less than 10 per cent, of protein. When there- 
fore the guarantee of a proprietary feed, whatever may be its name, ranges 
from 6 to 8 per cent, of protein, the purchaser may be pretty sure that he 
has under observation an oat hull mixture, and the purchaser should always 
remember that an oat hull mixture is only worth what it contains outside 
of the oat hulls. The oat hulls are not worth purchasing. 

It is probable, too, that the penal force of a feeding stuff counts for 
something. Some men are honest becatise they like to be, some men are 
honest because they are afraid to be otherwise, and some have courage 
enough to be dishonest until they are caught. With the second class and 
perhaps the third, such a law has some influence. 

It must be remembered that after all no law can take the place of intelli- 
gence on the part of those whom it is supposed to protect. If the farmers 
of this country would inform themselves thoroughly in regard to various 
commercial feeding stuffs on the market, and learn to distinguish the various 
kinds by mere physical inspection, there would be much less need for legis- 
lation than is at present the case. The buyer who is awake to the situation 
will not purchase oat hull mixtures with the understanding that he is getting 
pure corn and oats, neither will he long be deceived by bran and corncobs. 

One fact which promotes the cale of inferior feeding stuffs is the foolish 
desire of so many to purchase something cheap. If one dealer has a mixture 
which he is offering at a dollar per ton less than some other dealer, the former 
gets the trade of a certain class of people, who consider only price, and have 
no intelligent understanding of quality. It should be understood that even 
when a feeding stuff, .inspection law exists it will be largely inoperative 
unless it has the co-operation of the constituency which it is supposed to 
benefit. No farmer should allow himself to purchase a feeding stuff which 
is not sold under the proper guarantee and marks. He should refuse to 
listen to the smooth statements of some dealer or agent who fails to com- 
ply with the requirements of the law, and who assures him that he has 
some remarkably valuable mixture to offer him. The days of magic are 
past. There are no nutrients of greater value than those which are found 
in the grains which are raised upon your farms, and when any manufacturer 
claims to have discovered some remarkable material or process, by means 
of which he can furnish you a cattle food of previously unheard of merit, 
you should turn a deaf ear. 



TAINTED OR DEFECTIVE MILKS, THEIR CAUSES AND 
METHODS OF PREVENTION. 



BY DR. H. L. RUSSELL, BACTERIOLOGIST, WISCONSIN LXPERIMENT 
STATION — AUTHOR OF "DAIRY BACTERIOLOGY." 

Madison, Wis. 



The peculiar constitution of milk renders it especially liable to de- 
fects that seriously impair its value for dairy products. Particularly is 
this so where made up into cheese, as tainted milk exerts a more pronounced 
and harmful effect when made into this product than into butter. Thous- 
ands of dollars are yearly lost to the cheese industry because of the imper- 
fections that occur in the condition of the milk. Much of this could be 
saved if a more thorough knowledge concerning the causes of these troubles 
could be disscminated.\ 

Considering the question of milk defects from the standpoint of the 
milk producer — the factory patron — the subject may be treated under 
the following heads 

1. Taints or defects produced by the presence of living micro-organ- 
isms. 

2. Taints or defects due to the absorption of pre-existing odors from 
the air or food, or to the derangement of the normal functions of the 
animal. 

In the first instance we have to deal with biological problems, with 
milk as affected by living germs; in the second, the defective or improper 
condition is caused mainly by the absorption of odors in a purely physical 
way, or is due to some unusual condition of the system of the animal. 

Before taking up the taints in milk due to germ life, it may be help- 
ful to premise this with a brief discussion of how living organisms gain 
access to milk and the conditions that favor their development. 

Milk as-a bacterial food medium. The physical constitution of 
milk is well adapted to promote the active growth of many living organisms 

95 



90 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

if they are once introduced. The nutritive elements in it are either 
in a soluble state or are readily converted into a condition that permits of 
their absorption by the lower forms of plant life. The degree of concentra- 
tion is also favorable to most forms. Condensed milk keeps because 
the soluble solids are so concentrated that living germs cannot well 
develop in it; in ordinary milk the more dilute condition permits de- 
velopment. 

The chemical composition of milk is also favorable to germ activity. 
In reaction it is nearly neutral, or if acid, the acidity is not usually suffi- 
cient to inhibit the development of life that is otherwise capable of growth 
in such a fluid. Not all of the milk constituents are of equal value as food 
for micro-oganisms. The fat is not readily affected, hence butter is less 
susceptible to biogenic defects than cheese. Both the sugar and the nitro- 
genous elements are readily decomposed by a large number of micro-or- 
ganisms. 

The lower forms of plant life such as the bacteria, yeasts and moulds 
are the common organisms which are capable of existing in milk that dele- 
teriously affect it. The first group is by far the most important, indeed, 
the great majority of abnormal milks that may be ascribed to germ origin 
are due to this type of organic life. In some instances, yeasts and moulds 
have some effect, but their influence is usually more potent in the manu- 
factured product than in fresh milk. 

Healthy milk sterile in udder. While milk is so constituted 
chemically and physically as to make an excellent food for these lower forms 
of vegetable life, it is free from all traces of germ life in the milk glands of a 
healthy animal. In a diseased animal the case may be different, especially 
if the trouble exists in connection with the udder. An animal may be 
suffering from some physiological trouble such as indigestion, stomach 
or intestinal derangement, and yet the milk might retain its sterile prop- 
erties. Indeed, the disturbed condition of the animal due to the disease 
might be so grave as to seriously alter the chemical or even the physical 
condition of the milk, and still the milk remain germ free. It is a very 
prevalent notion that the ingestion of living germs with the food is the 
way in which the milk becomes infected, but such is not the case. The 
healthy animal, or even vegetable tissue for that matter, is free from for- 
eign forms of life. Normal blood is perfectly sterile. In the functional 
activity of organs, the secretions as secreted are likewise free from micro- 
organisms. 

how milk becomes infected with germ life. 

While the milk is sterile when elaborated in the udder, it in- 
variably becomes contaminated with living germs during the process of 
milking. This need cause but little wonder when we consider the con- 
ditions under which the milk is drawn. All of the surroundings of the 



RULES AND REASONS FOR FARM CARE OF MILK. 



97 



animal are teeming with innumerable microbes. From the time of milk- 
ing until it is removed from the barn, it is continually exposed to con- 
ditions that permit of its being infected with bacteria. Even before it 

flows from the udder, it is exposed to con- 
tamination, for the opening of the teat is 
always covered with a film of dirt and from 
this is derived a sufficient quota of bacteria 
to infect the same. To such an extent is 
this true, that the first few streams from 
each teat contain a much larger number 
of organisms than any subsequent part of 
the milking. 

In attempting to prolong the keep- 
ing quality of milk as is done in the 
milk business, the presence of these organ- 

FiG.l— Sectional view of udder: a, isms is a drawback, for the bacteria in the 

exterior opening of milk duct show- . . 

ing opportunity of infection by fore milk are m a rapid state ol growth, 

bacteria from without; b, milk cis- . ,, . , , . , ., 

tern; c, milk sinus; d, glandular owing to the environment m which they 

c?e Cr o1^t. iSS T^Uc^iSun m abie have been kept. Warmth, food and 

t\ n e 1r.a^7ntrmiik i0 ci S ste?n W but moisture are present in the milk duct to a 

the lower portion of milk duct in favorable degree, and a rapid growth can- 
teat almost invariably contains ' 

them. not but take place. 

Dairy utensils. Dirty vessels are a most prolific source of trouble. 
Old rusty cans that are difficult to cleanse, and therefore are not well cleaned, 





Fig. 2. — Microscopic appearance of ordinary milk showing fat globules and bacteria in the milk 
serum. The cluster of bacteria on left side are lactic acid forming germs. 

are a standing menace to the purity of a milk supply. Too much atten- 
tion cannot be paid to the condition of these milk receptacles. Not only 



98 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

should great care be given the milk pails and cans, but all utensils that 
come in contact with the milk should be subject to the same close scrutiny. 
The custom of returning the by-products of the factory (skim milk, whey 
and buttermilk) to the farm in the same set of cans that are used for the 
fresh milk is a source of much trouble. Many factories insist that sepa- 
rate receptacles shall be used for these products that are always in an ad- 
vanced stage of fermentation. With intelligent effort the danger from 
this source could be much minimized, but the difficulty lies in the fact that 
one careless patron often defeats the labors of those who are more careful 





Fig. 3.— The wrong and right kind of a milk pail. A, the ordinary type of pail showing sharp 
angle between sides and bottom; B. the same properly flushed with solder so as to facilitate 
thorough cleaning. The lower figure represents a joint as ordinarily made in tinware. The 
depression a affords a place "f refuge for bacteria, from which they are not readily dislodged. 
This opening joint should be tilled completely with solder. 

in this regard. Greater care on the part of the cheesemaker in keeping 
the whey vat sweet and clean w r ould be an object-lesson to patrons that 
would be of more value than abundance of precept. 

It must be remembered in cleaning milk vessels that the spores of 
these "infinitely little" germs are often endowed with powers of resistance 
that far exceed the ordinary standard. In a practical way, on the farm, 
unless one has steam at his command, it is impossible to actually destroy 
all these latent forms of life that may happen to adhere to a pail or can. 
Tepid, or even hot water momentarily applied has but little effect, but 
thorough scalding will do much toward removing the larger amount of 
germ life. Joints and seams should receive especial attention. These 
should be well flushed with solder so as to make a round surface that can 
easily be cleaned. 

Infection from body of animal. A serious source of contamination 
of milk always comes from the animal herself. Drawn, as the milk usually 
is, in an open pail, the opportunity for entrance of loose hairs, particles 
of excreta, line dust, epithelial scales and fodder particles could not well 
be improved. Every hair of the animal's coat is laden with dormant 



RULES AND REASONS FOR FARM CARE OF MILK. 99 

germ life. Fig. 4 shows a culture made of several hairs that were allowed 
to fall on a sterile gelatine surface. When the animal is shedding her 
hair, there is nothing to prevent the falling of these germ-laden particles 
directly into the milk. Even where the hair is not rubbed off, the move- 
ments of the animal and milker are constantly dislodging particles of fine 
dust that settle in a continuous shower into the warm nutrient fluid be- 
low. It may be thought that straining the milk removes this source of 
filth. So it does the visible filth, but not until the invisible living germ 
life has been washed off into the fluid, there to set up the various fermenta- 
tions that it is capable of producing. The kind of organisms that gain 
access to the milk from this source is, generally speaking, thoroughly un- 
desirable. They are largely fecal bacteria, derived from decomposing 
animal excreta. In a large number of instances they are spore-bearing 




Fig. 4.— Showing the bacteriai contamination arising from hair. These three hairs were allowed 
to fall on a sterile gelatine surface. The adherent bacteria developed readily in this medium 
and the number of bacteria thus introduced into the milk from ihese hairs can be estimated 
by the developing colonies that show as irregular protuberances along the line of the hair. 

bacteria that are very resistant, and the type of fermentative activity that 
they are capable of producing in milk is undesirable in cheese making. 

Besides the dirt and filth that is derived directly from the animal, 
matter from other sources may gain access to the milk by being carried 
in the hairy coat of the animal. 

Cows wading in stagnant water in midsummer often cover their bag 
and flanks with slimy deposits that dry on and in this condition particles 
of dust are readily dislodged. 

The custom of leaving the milk in the barn even during the milking 
is a practice that should be thoroughly condemned. Not only can it absorb, 
to a certain extent, the odors peculiar to the place — a point which will 

of C. 



100 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



be taken up more in detail later — but the milk may be filled to a greater 
or less extent with the fine dust that is floating in the barn air. If dry 
feed has been fed immediately before or during milking, the air of the barn 
will be filled with dust particles that contribute their quota of bacterial 
life. 

In a general way, this gives a brief summary of how the milk becomes 
infected with bacterial life. Some of these species are not especially un- 
desirable as to their effect on manufactured products; but very often serious 
trouble does arise at the factory, owing to the introduction of troublesome 
bacteria that gain access through the improper care of milk. To the ex- 
tent that is consistent with practical manipulation, the attempt should be 
made to so handle milk as to keep all kinds of bacterial life out of it. There 
is no danger of milk being so sweet and pure as to injure it for commercial 




Fig. 5.— Showing germ content of barn air. A sterile gelatine plate was exposed for 30 seconds in 
the barn during the milking. The bacteria from the air have settled on the moist surface and 
developed into colonies. Each spot on the circle represents a colony that grew from a single 
germ. 

purposes. If a large percentage of its bacterial content was excluded, even 
to such an extent as to materially retard the normal development of the 
acid, still such a condition is to be preferred to that of continually over- 
ripe or tainted milk. It is far better for the maker to use a starter and con- 
trol the course of the fermentation than it is "to let the acid boss him." 



EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON QUALITY. 

The proper treatment of milk does not stop with the securing of it in 
as near its original purity as possible, but it must be handled in such a 
way as to retard the development of bacteria that find their way into it. 
As it comes from the animal, it has a high temperature, approximating 



RULES AND REASONS FOR FARM CARE OF MILK. 101 

blood heat. At this elevated temperature bacterial growth takes place 
with surprising rapidity, and unless the animal heat is artificially lowered 
and the milk kept chilled, various fermentations are set up in it as a re- 
sult of the growth of different bacterial forms. Common experience is so 
uniformly in accord with this that no further statement is necessary to 
emphasize its importance. (Figure 6.) 

FERMENTATIONS OF MILK. 

So far we have considered the manner of infection of milk by bacteria 
rather than the kind of infection. As the biological defects in milk possess 
more or less well defined characteristics that enable the experienced per- 
son to recognize them, it is necessary that the leading troubles with which 












PROGENY OF A /^fc°° 

SINGLE GERM ®ii N 

IN TWELVE HOURS Wn^lLLK n 

"" s v 

Fig. 6.— Showing the effect of cooling milk on the growth of bacteria. The beneficial results of 
early chilling are readily apparent. 

the factory patron may be brought in contact should be so described as to 
enable him to recognize their presence and intelligently determine the 
cause of the same. A great deal of misconception exists among dairymen 
as to the causes of these troubles. We shall attempt, however, to outline 
briefly the causes of these various defects in milk with sufficient clearness 
so that they may be recognized. This will enable the patron to intelli- 
gently search for the same and apply an efficient remedy directly to the 
seat of the trouble rather than to expend so much well intended but mis- 
directed energy in other directions. 

SOUR MILK OR LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION. 

Milk, if left to itself invariably undergoes a fermentative change, gen- 
erally known as souring. The acidity of the same gradually increases un- 
til finally the amount of acid developed causes a coagulation or precipita- 
tion of the casein, and milk is said to curdle. This change is brought about 
mainly by a fermentation of the milk sugar, lactic acid being the chief 
product formed. The primary cause of this change is not to be found in 
any atmospheric condition, such as damp or hot weather, or sudden 



102 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



changes in temperature, but is dependent upon the growth of certain species 
of bacteria that get into the milk. Notwithstanding the popular notion, 
thunder storms in and of themselves do not sour milk. If milk is free 
from bacterial or other living organisms, thunder or electric discharges are 
unable to affect its acidity. It is the conditions that usually accompany 
the thunder storms., such as damp, heavy, muggy weather — conditions that 
favor rapid bacterial growth that are the real cause of the more rapid changes. 
The lactic acid bacteria are so widely distributed that their presence in 
milk is always assured, and the fermentative change that they cause may 
be considered as normal. 

In general their presence is advantageous in milk intended for cheese 
making, as the whole process of manufacture favors the development of 
this class to the exclusion of other kinds. Their enormous development in 
green cheese cannot be without significance, and undoubtedly the rapidity 
and character of the ripening process is largely determined by the develop- 
ment of this group. 

GASSY MILK. 

The most dreaded fermentations with which the cheesemaker has to 
contend are those in which gaseous by-products are formed. In the great 










Fig. 7. — A "gassy" cheese made from tainted milk. Note not only its porous texture but the 
distorted shape of the cheese. 

majority of instances, the organisms causing these changes belong to the 
sour milk class, but in addition to the lactic acid that they form, they also 
give off other decomposition products, among which are gases such as car- 
bon dioxide and hydrogen, and various volatile ill-smelling compounds. Fer- 
mentations of this character are almost sure to produce undesirable taints 
that pass over into the cheese, materially injuring its quality. 

The appearance of "gassy" milk is due entirely to the presence of gas 
producing bacteria. All of the phenomena in cheese making associated 



RULES AND REASONS FOR FARM CARE OF MILK. 



103 



with the development of gas are likewise attributable to the same cause. 
If the difficulty appears before the milk is set, the milk is said to be 
"gassy." Often it is delayed until the cooking process, when the curds 
rise to the surface of the whey and float on account of the development 
of the imprisoned gas. Such curds are known as "floaters" or "bloat- 
ers." A less pronounced fermentation results in the production of " pin- 
holes" in the curd. The appearance of gas may even be delayed until 
the cheese is taken from the press. If it occurs at this stage, the cheese is 
said to "huff" or swell and the texture in severe cases is practically de- 
stroyed. All of these appearances whether they occur in the milk, in 
the curd, or in the green cheese are to be traced back to a faulty condi- 
tion in the milk. In the majority of instances this originates on the farm 




Fig. 8.— A block (Swiss) cheese made from "gassy" milk. This is the most common trouble 
noted in the Swiss cheese industry. 



through careless methods of handling. The rapidity of its development 
in the factory can be controlled in part by the cheesemaker, but it is diffi- 
cult, if not impossible, to make a superior article out of inferior raw mate- 
rials. Unless the factoryman is furnished with a clean, pure, wholesome 
milk free from noxious germs that are able to cause these abnormal fer- 
mentations, he cannot be expected to make a superior product. 

SWEET CURDLING AND DIGESTING FERMENTATIONS IN MILK. 

Quite often the milk producer finds that his milk lobbers or curdles 
quickly without the production of appreciable amounts of acid. This 
premature curdling is an abnormal fermentation in which the following 
series of changes occur in the character of the milk. The casein is not 
precipitated on account of the development of lactic acid but by the action 
of certain unorganized ferments (enzymes) that are secreted by various 
species of bacteria. The action of these non-vital ferments is quite similar 
to that of ordinary rennet; in fact, rennet as well as pepsin, are examples 



104 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

of these proteid-converting enzymes, that are extracted from the stomachs 
of animals. Under proper conditions, certain bacteria have the power 
of producing various enzymes in a manner similar to the cells of the stom- 
ach or intestine. This bacterial rennet does not differ materially from 
rennet of animal origin. Curds precipitated by the action of rennet may 
be readily distinguished from those produced by acid. As a rule, they 
are softer, and more gelatinous than acid curds. 

This abnormal milk is produced by a large variety of bacteria which 
as a class can be characterized as follows: As a rule they are spore bear- 
ing organisms; therefore, they possess high powers of resistance. It is 
for this reason that boiled or heated milks almost always undergo this 
type of fermentation. If such milk is allowed to stand after it has curdled, 
another abnormal change usually sets in which is marked by the gradual 
digestion of the curd and the appearance of a cloudy whey. Stich "wheyed 
off" milks have had the insoluble casein, the leading cheese constituent 
of the milk, transformed into soluble peptone-like substances. This part 
of the cheese solids is therefore dissolved or "digested" as it is said. When 
such a change has occurred, recovery of the casein in the milk is impos- 
sible. It is for this reason that the cheese yield from tainted milks of this 
class is lower than from pure sweet milk. The unfairness of the "pound 
for ten" plan of manufacturing cheese is evident under such circumstances. 
With such defective milk, it is a physical impossibility for the cheese maker 
to retain the entire casein in the cheese. 

The organisms producing these quick curdling and digestive fermen- 
tations are, as a rule, bacteria that are associated with fecal matter which 
finds its way into the milk in a variety of ways. 

SLIMY FERMENTATIONS. 

Not infrequently milk undergoes a marked change in its consistency, 
becoming so viscous as to even string out in threads to some distance. 
All gradations of this increased viscosity may be noted, from where the 
milk is slightly thickened or sticky, through a slimy or slippery stage, to 
that where it can be pulled out into long strings. A variety of terms have 
been applied to the different phases of this series of changes to represent 
the varying conditions that are to be noted. Thus, slimy or viscous milk 
refers to an increased viscosity; ropy, stringy or thready milk, to where 
the milk adheres to anything it touches, stringing out in threads often 
several feet long. 

The causes of these various abnormal fermentations are due to the pres- 
ence of certain species of bacteria that for the time being gain the ascend- 
ency over the normal milk bacteria. Several different species have been 
separated from samples of slimy or ropy milk. 

In some instances the sugar constituent of the milk is changed into 
a viscous substance by the action of these organisms; in other cases the 
proteid elements suffer. Ropy or stringy milk besides being unsightly 



RULES AND REASONS FOR FARM CARE OF MILK. 



105 



and thus injuring the product for direct consumption, is undesirable for 
dairy products. The viscosity of such milk is increased so much that 
it cannot be thoroughly creamed for butter making, and the fermentation 
changes that go in the curd also injure it in some cases for cheese making. 
The slimy fermentations are more apt to occur during summer weather, 
but epidemics of this kind have been reported under winter conditions. 
Defective milks of this type are quite frequent, as 
several epidemics come to our notice almost every 
year. A careful bacteriological study of apparently 
normal milk often reveals the presence of slime- 
forming bacteria in limited numbers that are kept 
under subjection by some more dominant ferment 
change such as the sour milk fermentation. 

BITTER FERMENTATIONS. 

A bitter condition in milk may be induced by a 
variety of causes, but true fermentations that pro- 
duce bitter products are the result mainly of bacterial 
action. This type of fermentation is caused by 
widely different bacteria. The writer has isolated a 
pure acid organism, one that soured milk without 
the production of any gaseous product, and yet 
milk impregnated with this organism developed a 
taste as bitter as gall. Many of the digestive or pep- 
tonizing fermentations develop bitter flavors. Where 
butyric acid is formed in milk, a bitter taste is 
often noted. In heated milks especially, bitter 
flavors frequently occur. This condition arises from 
the fact that the heating process destroys the normal 
lactic acid bacteria and as these bitter ferment germs 
are usually spore-bearing organisms, they are able 
to resist the heating process. 

Bitter milk or cream is occasionally noted in 
the winter. Some of the bacteria that are able to 
bitter substance can grow at considerably 
lower temperatures than the ordinary sour milk forms; and so, if milk 
is kept where it is near the freezing point, these bitter-forming species develop 
more rapidly than the lactic species, thus giving the peculiar flavor to the 
milk. In some cases the bitter flavor in milk, unless it is too pronounced, 
disappears when the product is made up into butter or cheese. 



I 



'slimy" milk. 



Fig. 9. 
This milk strung out in 
fine threads several feet 
in length. form 



VARIOUS OTHER FERMENTATIONS. 



The above fermentative changes include the more important ones that 
are liable to appear in milk as a result of bacterial infection. In addition 
to these there are numerous other changes that occur from time to time. 



106 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

Among such may be mentioned the formation of alcohol, due mainly to 
yeasts, pigment fermentations such as blue, red or bloody, yellow and 
green milks; but these do not occur frequently enough to merit a further 
consideration in this connection. 

The fermentations so far referred to are the result of bacterial action. 
They are not diseases in the strict sense of the word, but they affect mater- 
ially the commercial value of milk. 

DISEASE BACTERIA IN MILK. 

Besides these bacterial defects or troubles, there are certain bovine 
diseases of a contagious character in which the milk of the diseased ani- 




FlG. 10.— Bacterial content of milk handled in ordinary way. Each spot represents a colony 
growing on gelatine plate. Compare with B'ig. 1 1 (opposite page) where same quantity of milk 
is used in making culture. Over 15,000 bacteria per cc. in this milk. 

mal may be infected with bacteria dangerous to health. In some instances 
the milk secretion is so changed by the disease, as in anthrax fever, that 
its abnormal appearance in connection with the condition of the animal 
would lead to its rejection. In other animal diseases, the milk may show 
no physical peculiarity that would enable one to recognize its true state. 
As for instance, in tuberculosis, the milk secretions remain apparently 
unimpaired for a considerable period, and it is only where the disease be- 
comes aggravated, especially in the mammary glands, that the appearance 
of the milk is markedly changed. 

The majority of the bacteria that are capable of causing contagious dis- 
eases gain access to milk after it is drawn. Persons convalescing from 
fevers may infect the milk, or individuals who care for the sick may 



RULES AND REASONS FOR FARM CARE OF MILK. 



107 



inadvertently be the means of transmitting contagion. Typhoid fever 
is quite often disseminated in this way. 

The greatest danger that arises from a diseased milk supply comes 
from the poison-forming bacteria that get into it through improper handling. 
The cases of ice cream, cheese and milk poisoning, and the high mortality 
of bottle-fed infants are in large part due to the poison formed from the 
putrefactive changes that take place in milks that are produced by care- 
less and filthy methods of handling. The presence of such disease bacteria 
cannot be recognized by a simple test. The greatest care should be taken 
by all dairymen in regard to the milk of animals suffering from any disease; 




FIG. 11.— Bacterial content, of milk drawn with care. Diminished germ content is shown by 
smaller number of colonies (330 bacteria per cc). Compare this culture wiih that shown in 
Fig. 10 on opposite page. 

also in allowing persons to handle the milk supply who are convalescing 
from or who have been exposed to contagious diseases of any sort. 



DIRECT ABSORPTION OF TAINTS. 

In a great many cases where milk becomes tainted so as to impair its 
value for cheese making, the trouble is due to the operation of another 
set of causes than those that have just been considered. It is a well known 
fact that milk readily absorbs many volatile substances with which it may 
come in contact, and it is generally believed that the taints and defects 
that are from time to time observed in milk are due to this absorptive 
property rather than to the growth and development of various fermenta- 
tive organisms that form undesirable flavors and odors by breaking down 
certain substances in the milk. While in the popular mind greater 
importance is attached to this physical absorption than the actual facts 



108 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

will warrant, still it should be thoroughly understood that this principle 
does operate to a considerable extent and that undesirable or defective 
milk is often produced entirely through the operation of these physical 
processes. 

Many liquids have a great affinity for matter in a gaseous form and 
will absorb varying amounts of such substances. These can be readily 
recognized if the absorbed substance contains an odoriferous principle. 
A fluid like milk possesses this property to an unusual degree, for not only 
does the liquid serum absorb volatile odors, but the fat also has a great 
affinity for many of these substances. 

ABSORPTION AFTER MILKING. 

As milk is exposed during the milking process and very often after its 
withdrawal to an atmosphere that is liable to contain odors of an unde- 
sirable character, it is not surprising to note that it may thus contract 
flavors by direct absorption. The peculiar stable odor is due to the vol- 
atile products that are escaping from the decomposing masses of manure 
or fermenting foods and the exhalations from the bodies of animals in the 
barn. Under ordinary circumstances the barn air is saturated with these 
products, and even in a well ventilated barn, where considerable care is 
taken to purify the air, they persist to a greater or less degree in spite of 
all efforts. 

It is a popular belief that milk will not absorb any of these odors if it 
is warmer than the surrounding air; that it exhales odors when warmer 
and absorbs odors only when colder than the atmosphere. For this reason 
it is said that there is no danger of milk absorbing any taints in the barn 
so long,as it is removed from such an atmosphere before it is cool. Scarcely 
any one will uphold the method of leaving milk in the barn over night as 
a process that is consistent with a pure sweet product; yet, owing to this 
popular notion concerning the absorptive properties of milk, a large major- 
ity of dairymen believe that the exposure in the barn air is fraught with 
no particular danger so long as the milk is removed before it loses its natural 
heat. 

While the popular belief expressed above is throughly entrenched 
in the minds of many dairymen, still, it is contradicted by the every-day 
experience of the housewife. The careful housekeeper has learned by 
experience that milk or even meat should not be put into a refrigerator 
in a warm condition. It should first be allowed to cool before being placed 
in such a confined atmosphere, for, when warm, it absorbs more readily 
any odors that may come from other foods, and is thus tainted much sooner 
than would be the case if it were chilled before being placed in the refrig- 
erator. 

Experiments made by the author where milk was exposed to air sat- 
urated with various volatile odors showed that both warm and cold milk 
absorbed these odors in less than an hour to such an extent that they could 



RULES AND REASONS FOR FARM CARE OF MILK. 109 

be detected in the milk by the sense of smell or taste. Where the odor 
was marked it was almost without exception greater in the warm milk 
than in the cold. 

While it is entirely possible that warm milk may exhale odors in cool- 
ing, it is also true that it is capable of absorbing other odors at the same 
time and that an exposure, even for a short time, to an air that is befouled 
or tainted with any obnoxious gases may be sufficient to impregnate the 
milk so that the odor can be recognized hours afterwards. 

ABSORPTION OF ODORS PREVIOUS TO MILKING. 

Besides the odors that are absorbed subsequent to milking, milk in- 
variably has a more or less pronounced odor that is derived directly from 
the animal herself that is usually referred to as the "cowy" or "animal 
odor." While very little is known concerning the nature of these peculiar 
odors, it is not at all surprising that they exist and that they are imparted 
to the milk. When we understand how different volatile odors are diffused 
by means of the circulation throughout the body tissues, it might be ex- 
pected that a fluid having great absorptive properties as milk would be 
saturated with these peculiar substances. Not only the milk but other 
secretions and even gaseous emanations from the body are often charged 
with volatile products that are consumed in the feed. While this is true 
to a certain extent, even where the animal receives ordinary food, it is 
materially intensified when the animal is given any food that is rich in 
these peculiar substances. Thus the volatile principle in onions and some 
other garden vegetables can be recognized in the expired breath and within 
a short time. 

The peculiar property of rapid diffusion throughout the system by 
means of the circulation and the subsequent absorption by the milk makes 
it necessary to use considerable care in the feeding of certain food stuffs 
to animals whose milk is to be used for direct consumption or made into 
the usual dairy products. In the majority of cases where such foods are 
not fed to excess and are given to the animal immediately after milking 
the peculiar odors will be thrown off so that at the succeeding milking they 
will not be markedly apparent. Considerable difference in different ani- 
mals is, however, noted in this regard. There can be no doubt, however, 
but that milk is saturated with certain odors derived from the food, if such 
food is fed a few hours before milking. The question under discussion is 
mainly whether such a condition will persist from one milking to 
another. 

An abnormal condition of the animal incident to the disturbance of 
some physiological function may also affect the milk. When cows are in 
heat, their milk sometimes assumes an abnormal character and the marked 
variation, chemically and physically between colostrum and normal milk justi- 
fies its rejection for the usual domestic purposes. Animals fed largely and 
exclusively on a single food are apt to have peculiar milk. This is not always 



110 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

noticeable on account of any marked odor but the chemical characteristics 
of the liquid are sometimes changed. The milk of swill-fed cows, according 
to Koberand Busey, often has a peculiar taste and odor and is said to produce 
a hyperacidity of the urine and consequent eczema. Brewer's grains and 
distillery slops when fed in large quantities frequently induce an abnormal 
chemical reaction. 

DISCRIMINATION BETWEEN DIRECTLY ABSORBED AND BIOGENIC TAINTS. 

The cause of a tainted condition of milk is not always an easy matter 
to determine. Much confusion exists in the minds of many in regard to 
these various phenomena, and the many inquiries received show the im- 
portance of the subject. In case trouble of any sort arises in connec- 
tion with the milk supply, it is highly important that intelligent steps should 
be taken to locate the exact cause of the difficulty. The manner of dealing 
with a taint due to bacterial infection is so radically different from the 
treatment of a taint absorbed directly by the milk that the distinction be- 
tween these two different types of milk faults or defects should be made 
evident. 

The conditions under which the taint appears in the milk throw much 
light on its probable cause. If it is pronounced immediately after milking 
there is but little probability of its being due to any other cause than di- 
rect absorption. A bacterial taint can only be formed in the milk when 
opportunity is had for infection and subsequent development of the bac- 
teria. This requires several hours, so that a taint produced by 
decomposition changes that are caused by the action of micro- 
organisms, does not appear until the milk is usually from twelve to twenty- 
four hours old or even older. The length of time necessary to produce this 
change is determined mainly by the temperature at which the milk is kept. 
The appearance of that taint some hours subsequent to milking does not 
necessarily indicate a bacterial cause. It is entirely possible that the milk 
may not have been subjected to conditions that favored direct absorption 
for some hours, and also where the odors were not very pronounced, it 
might take several hours before they would be absorbed with sufficient in- 
tensity to be readily detected. Odors due to bacterial development usually 
become more pronounced with the increasing age of the milk. 

Another simple rule that will aid in the detection of bacterial de- 
fects is to inoculate or add to a quantity of milk that has just previously 
been boiled, a small portion of the suspected milk. If in the course of twelve 
to twenty-four hours, a similar trouble is noted in the inoculated milk, 
it indicates that the defect is a progressive one and that it is due to the 
action of living ferments. Taints directly absorbed by milk are incapable 
of generating themselves in this way. Only living matter possesses this 
characteristic. Boiled milk is preferable to raw milk, because if ordinary 
milk is used, the lactic acid forms that are invariably present may repress 



RULES AND REASONS FOR FARM CARE OF MILK. Ill 

or overcome the taint organism that is inoculated. If boiled milk is used 
this disturbing factor is for the most part eliminated. 

TREATMENT OF MILK CONTAMINATED WITH BACTERIAL TAINTS. 

Having described in a general way the origin of the various taints that 
are to be noted from time to time in imperfect milk, the practical ques- 
tions that arise in the minds of milk producers are how can these difficulties 
be overcome if they have already occurred. Often little or no special at- 
tention is paid to the conditions that may result in defective milk so long 
as the milk supply is normal. Only when trouble has already arisen do 
we awake to the necessity of taking steps to overcome the present difficulty 
and avoid a repetition in the future. If we would once realize that pre- 
vention is very much easier than cure, we would see the necessity for a 
more thorough understanding of the conditions that surround these de- 
fects. 

Inasmuch as the attention of the factory patron is more prominently 
directed toward these difficulties when once he is troubled with them, it 
will be better to consider the different ways in treating a defective milk 
supply. The first step is to determine accurately the cause of the difficulty. 
Successful measures cannot be intelligently directed against unknown causes. 
From the rule given above the milk producer can easily determine whether 
the given defect is due to a living germ or whether it is the result of some 
physiological disturbance of the animal, or possibly due to direct absorp- 
tion. 

In doing this it is necessary to locate the difficulty. It ma3 r be due 
to a single animal or to a general condition of the herd. Sampling the 
milk of the herd separately will enable one to determine more easily the 
cause of the difficulty. 

Supposing the taint to be due to some abnormal fermentation, how 
should it be treated" There are two general methods of treatment that 
can be followed: 

(1) Eradication, by eliminating the inciting cause. 

(2) Overcoming the difficulty by an antagonistic fermentation. 
Let us assume that the defect is a ropy condition that appears in the 

night's milk, or milk that is held over Sunday. This difficulty is due en- 
tirely to the presence in an unusual degree of certain kinds of bacteria 
that have gained access to the milk in large numbers. From ordinary 
milks these slime forming organisms can often be isolated. In three separate 
instances, during the past season, in the writer's laboratory, micro-organ- 
isms of this class have been found in normal milk. It is only because this 
particular kind was not in the ascendancy that the milk did not undergo 
slimy degeneration under ordinary conditions. Such forms exist in water, 
soil and filth of various kinds, but few of this type get into the milk com- 
pared with the total number there present. If , however, a mass of them 
should be accidentally introduced and they should gain the mastery over 



112 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

the more common bacteria, the milk would soon assume a slimy or stringy 
condition. The various fermentations that are continually going on in 
milk represent, in a limited compass, the perpetual struggle that is seen 
everywhere in nature. In some cases, different forms of life live together in the 
same fluid in seeming harmony, but only so because both of them are indif- 
ferent to each other. Sooner or later a struggle ensues as to which will gain 
the mastery, and lust as the weaker plant or tree is choked out in the field 
or forest, so the course of fermentative changes is determined by the pre- 
dominance of certain ferment germs and the conditions that affect their 
environment. 

Having determined that the abnormal condition is a slimy fermenta- 
tion, that is general to the whole herd, the question is to locate its origin. 
Under ordinary conditions, it must gain a foothold in the milk subse- 
quent to its withdrawal. 

In some instances where inflammation of the udder (mammitis) occurs, 
the milk is slimy when it is drawn, but such instances would be readily" 
recognized from the condition of the udder. The most likely sources of 
infection of this character are these that are due to the contamination from 
the barn air or the animal herself. Brushing and carding the under parts 
of the animal to remove, loose hairs and then thoroughly moistening the 
same to prevent the dislodgment of fine dust-like particles will materially 
diminish the danger arising from the coat of the animal. Cows wading 
in stagnant pools often become coaled with slime and in some cases slime 
forming bacteria have been found in the surface water. 

The fault may be with imperfectly cleaned utensils, such as rusty 
cans or pails. Such a source of infection may be positively excluded by 
giving all utensils, strainers and dippers, as well as cans and pails, a thor- 
ough scalding and steaming. Epidemics of these milk troubles have been 
in several instances traced to contamination of barn air from foul feed or 
litter. The dust rising from such stuff remains suspended in the air for 
some little time, and under such conditions exposure of the milk may re- 
sult in infecting it with the obnoxious form. 

Exclusion of bacteria by clean milking and handling. By taking 
greater care in securing the milk to see that no foreign matter is allowed 
to fall into the same, and continuing this care during the entire handling, 
it is usually possible to overcome the peculiar defect by exclusion. If a 
dairy once becomes infected in this way, it must be remembered that the 
the dairy utensils and the whole surroundings of the place are likely to 
contain the specific ferment germs, just as under ordinary conditions they 
invariably contain the peculiar forms capable of souring che milk. By 
eliminating one source after another the milk producer can usually find the 
direct cause and then by instituting more rigorous measures in regard 
to this, he can in the future avoid a repetition of the difficulty. 

If the milk is received in thoroughly cleaned pails, if loose hairs, dust 
and dirt are prevented from falling into the pail during milking, if the barn 



RULES AND REASONS FOR FARM CARE OF MILK. 113 

air is pure and free from dust, and if the fore milk from each teat is re- 
jected, the bacterial content of the milk will be greatly reduced. In a series 
of experiments of this sort, carried out by the author, the following re- 
sults were obtained. 

Milk received under ordinary conditions contained IS, 500 bacteria 
per c. c. 

Milk received with above precautions contained 380 per c. c. 

A repetition of the experiment under winter conditions showed 7,000 
bacteria per c. c. in milk as ordinarily milked, and only 210 for same volume 
where the above precautions were observed in milking. Milk taken from 
the cow with this degree of care remained sweet over twenty-four hours 
longer than did that which was drawn in the usual manner. 

This diminution in germ life means not only a lengthening of the time 
during which the milk will remain sweet, but it also favors the exclusion 
of those bacteria that are especially undesirable. The typical lactic acid 
bacteria cannot be entirely excluded, but among those that are kept 
out by this careful milking are the deleterious forms, those that aie able 
to cause abnormal changes in the liquid. 

Antagonistic fermentations. It sometimes happens that the ex- 
clusion methods fail to eradicate the persistent organism. "With certain 
abnormal fermentations, another course is still open that very often will 
succeed where the first fails. 

Take, for instance, a milk defect where the fluid curdles in a sweet 
condition without the production of the usual amount of acid. Such 
a condition is not at all unusual and where present is often accompanied 
by a taint that renders the milk undesirable for factory purposes. The 
bacteria that are able to produce the enzymes causing the curdling of the 
casein are unable to develop in fluids containing much acid. The lactic 
bacteria, therefore, antagonize this sweet curdling class, and if a starter 
of pure sour milk from some neighboring dairy ir added to the freshly drawn 
milk, the lactic acid fermentation will gain the upper hand, the rennet 
forming bacteria being thus suppressed by the antagonistic fermentation. 
Such a method would not be feasible where the milk was sold for direct 
consumption, as the addition of the lactic acid starter would hasten the 
souring of the whole product, but where made into cheese or butler the 
objection would not be so great, aS these organisms are a necessary factor 
in the manufacture of these dairy products. Such a method is somewhat 
objectionable on general principles and should only be used where one 
has failed to eradicate the difficulty by thorough cleanliness. 

CHEMICAL DISINFECTION. 

Only rarely will it be necessary to resort to more heroic measures to 
overcome the various abnormal fermentations to which milk may be sub- 
ject. Thorough cleanliness, intelligently applied, will usually restore con- 
ditions to their normal state. In cases of contagious disease, more severe 



114 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

measures are necessary, as the specific disease organism is so well adapted 
that it can usually grow with rapidity if it once establishes itself in the 
animal body. Various disinfectants, such as freshly prepared milk of 
lime, sulphur, formaldehyde, corrosive sublimate, etc., can be used where 
complete disinfection is necessary. 

TREATMENT OF MILK TAINTED BY DIRECT ABSORPTION. 

In case the defective milk is caused by the direct absorption of some 
pre-existing odor, the method of treatment as to cure or prevention should 
be radically different from that employed when the difficulty is of biogenic 
origin. These absorbed taints have their source either in the animal her- 
self or are taken up by the milk subsequent to its withdrawal. 

As with abnormal fermentations produced by living organisms, it is 
much easier to prevent than to overcome an imperfect condition in milk. 
If the difficulty is due to absorption after milking, it can easily be pre- 
vented by removing the milk from the odoriferous source. Milk houses — • 
and every well regulated dairy should have a room or building set apart 
specifically for the purpose of storing the milk — should be entirely free 
from any objectionable odor. The room should be thoroughly ventilated 
so as to remove all dank odors that are apt to arise from places that are 
subject to much moisture. 

If the defect is most pronounced at time of milking, undoubtedly it 
can be traced directly to the animal. It may be due either to the normal 
odor, popularly called animal or cowy odor, that is usually present in milk 
to a greater or less degree, or the difficulty may be caused by the animal 
eating certain weeds or plants in her feed. 

The so-called animal odor is more or less constant in its appearance, 
independent of the character of the feed, although it varies in intensity 
in different animals. Just how this odor is produced is not thoroughly 
known, but it is probably carried by the blood to the various tissues of 
the body and absorbed from the circulation directly by the milk. Cab- 
bages, turnips, rape and silage when fed to cows likewise produce a pecu- 
liar flavor in the milk. These foeds contain various volatile substances 
that are absorbed from the alimentary canal by the blood and are subse- 
quentlv eliminated through the various excretory channels (.lungs, skin 
and kidneys). If the milk is drawn a few hours after the animal has par- 
taken of such foods the particular odor will often be quite marked. To 
a considerable extent, the intensity of this odor can be diminished by regu- 
lating the time of feeding. Where such crops are fed they should be given 
the animal immediately after milking so as to give the longest possible 
time for their elimination before the succeeding milking. The amount 
fed also has a considerable effect on the intensity of the odor. The animal 
herself, likewise exerts an individual peculiarity, the taint being more 
pronounced under similar conditions with some cows than with others. 
Where such feeds are given to cows it is important that no more should 



RULES AND REASONS FOR FARM CARE OF MILK. 115 

be fed than will be consumed in a relatively short time. If the animal has 
access to such feeds in her manger for a considerable number of hours, a 
tainted condition in the milk is sometimes observed that would not have 
been present if the food had been eaten immediately. 

Cows on pasture often eat weeds or plants that impart peculiar and 
ofttimes obnoxious flavors to the milk. The onion family, represented 
by the leeks, garlic and wild onions, are notorious in this regard. Cows 
running in the woods, especially in spring, are liable to have their milk 
affected from such a source. In some parts of the United States, partic- 
ularly along portions of the Atlantic seaboard, these wild plants infest 
the pasture lands to such an extent as to almost ruin the milk supply. 
Chicory, rag weed and numerous other wayside weeds bother later in the 
season. Where it is possible to control the access of cows to such places 
trouble may be easily prevented. 

METHODS OF ELIMINATING TAINTS. 

Aeration. Various methods have been suggested to aid in the elimi- 
nation or destruction of these obnoxious odors after they have been absorbed 
by the milk. The most widely discussed of these methods is aeration, i. e., 
bringing the milk more or less completely in contact with air, thereby al- 
lowing, it is claimed, an opportunity for the escape of these volatile sub- 
stances. This method has been most strongly recommended for milk used 
in cheese making, it being a well established belief that airing the milk 
improves it for this purpose. 

Aeration as ordinarily practiced has a double effect. Besides airing the 
milk, it usually lowers the temperature so that the effect of cooling is like- 
wise secured in a partial degree. Whether the reported benefits of aeration 
are not in part due to the cooling effect is not well known. Experiments 
made, under the auspices of different experiment stations are contradic- 
tory in their results and a satisfactory explanation of the reported benefits 
of aeration is yet to be made. 

The results of the system as determined by practical experience should 
have great weight, and notwithstanding the failure to satisfactorily ex- 
plain the apparent discrepancies between practice and carefully controlled 
experiments, the method certainly has no disadvantage. Care should be 
taken to aerate in a thoroughly pure atmosphere, that is, free from dust and 
taints of all sorts; otherwise more harm than good may come from the 
process. 

Pasteurization. Driving off the odors by heating the milk has also 
been highly recommended. In fact, this claim is often made as one of the 
advantages accruing from the pasteurizing process. In heating milk the 
various gases, as carbon dioxide, oxygen, etc., that are dissolved in the serum 
are driven off, and it is undoubtedly true that other substances of a gaseous 
nature would be eliminated, at least, in part by this treatment. Even an 



116 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

odor as persistent as that of garlic, it is claimed, may be greatly diminished 
in this way. 

The addition of chemicals, such as potassium nitrate (saltpeter) has 
also been recommended, but in our limited experience with this agent, 
we have always found that the milk made into cheese had a peculiar odor. 

Undoubtedly the use of heat and pure air will be of some help under 
certain conditions, but with the great majority of cases it will be easier 
and far more effectual to remedy the difficulty by prevention rather than 
by treatment. 

In the larger number of instances where milk is tainted, the producer ex- 
pects to find that the difficulty is due to the absorption of some pre-exist- 
ing taint. Generally he is wrong in this conclusion, for in a dairy that is 
kept reasonably free from putrefactive odors, the tainted condition of milk 
is more often due to the action of microbes than to direct absorption. In 
general, dairymen do not fully appreciate the influence of these microscopic 
forms of life. Until we recognize how potent they are in their effect on 
milk and how necessary it is to take every precaution to prevent their en- 
trance and growth in this field, we shall fail, as a rule, to apprehend the real 
source of trouble. 

Under natural conditions dirt and bacteria are invariably associated 
so that the entrance of even microscopic dust is really sufficient to seed 
the milk with organisms that are capable under ordinary conditions of 
greatly changing the chemical and even the physical constitution of milk, 
thereby converting what should be a highly nutritious fluid into much less 
valuable and often positively injurious products. 

In the preceding pages the attempt has been made to explain the cause 
of the various abnormal conditions that occur in milk, but these defects 
can be prevented in the great majority of cases if the proper care is given 
to the milk in the first place. To give definite expression as to what is 
meant by proper care, the following rules are appended. Even a rigid ob- 
servance of these regulations will not in all cases insure success, but they 
will be helpful to those that are in doubt in regard to the best method of 
treatment. These rules simply put into concise language the spirit of the 
foregoing pages. 

SUGGESTIONS TO MILK PRODUCERS IN REGARD TO THE CARE 

OF MILK. 

CARE OF ANIMALS. 

1. The milk of any animal suffering from disease should not be used 
for food in any form. 

2. The milk from fresh animals should be rejected until after the 
ninth milking. 

3. Ensilage, turnips, etc., should only be fed immediately after milk- 
ing, so as to allow time for the elimination of the volatile products of these 
feeds from the system of the animal. 



RULES AND REASONS FOR FARM CARE OF MILK. 117 

4. The quantity of above feeds should be limited so that the animals 
will consume the entire ration at once. 

5. The milking stable should be as free from dust as possible at time 
of milking. Feed dry fodders after milk is removed from stable. 

6. Brush udder and flanks with a stiff brush to remove dirt and loose 
hairs. Sponge off udder thoroughly with clean water, leaving it moist but 
not dripping wet. 

7. Use only clean tin milk pails. Reject all rusty or patched tinware 
in the milk business. Unless seams and joints are extra well soldered, it 
will pay to have an extra coating over all seams and the joints well flushed. 

8. Just before milking, the milker should wash his hands thoroughly 
with soap and water. Under no conditions should the hands be wet dur- 
ing the milking. 



1. Milk should not be left in barn during the milking as it can absorb 
odors even when hot and become contaminated with bacteria from the 
air. 

2. Milk, even when warm, should be strained through several layers of 
cheese cloth. This strainer should be first washed in tepid water and boiled 
after every milking and then dried. 

3. Milk should be aerated immediately after being milked. Aerators 
are best suited for this purpose, but stirring, dipping and pouring the milk 
will reduce in part the peculiar odors present in fresh milk. 

4. Milk should be immediately cooled after being drawn from the 
cow. Where possible, use ice or cold running water. A quick reduction 
in temperature checks the development of any bacteria that may have fal- 
len into the milk during milking. 

STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION. 

1. Milk should not be kept in barn over night. The dairy store room 
or building should be free from all foul smells. Stable and hog pen odors 
can be easily absorbed by the milk. 

2. The milk should be kept cold until it is delivered. An initial cool- 
ing is useless unless it is continued. 

3. In hauling milk to factory, cans should be full or covers pushed 
down to prevent churning. 

4. Cans should be protected by a covering, as a tarpaulin, to prevent 
dust from settling on cans and to protect the milk from the sun. 

CARE OF UTENSILS. 

1. Factory products such as whey or sour skim milk should be 
returned in other receptacles than the cans used for bringing milk to 
factory. This custom of returning waste products to the farm in the cans 



118 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

used for milk is the cause of more trouble in the cheese industry than 
any other one factor. 

2. Milk cans should be cared for as soon as returned to the farm. 
They should be rinsed in warm water, then thoroughly cleaned and left 
in the sun to dry, inverting in such a manner as to permit circulation of 
air. 

3. All dairy utensils, such as pails, strainers, dippers, etc., should re- 
ceive as stringent treatment as the cans. 

In caring for milk it should be remembered that two things are neces- 
sary; 

1. To prevent the absorption of any foul odors. 

2. To prevent the development of living organisms in the milk that 
are able to form foul substances that taint the same. 

The first can be accomplished by keeping taint-producing feeds from 
the cow and by keeping the milk in a place that is free from all undesir- 
able odors. The second result can be attained by thorough cleanliness com- 
bined with a low temperature. Dirt and filth are so intimately connected 
with bacteria in nature that germ life can be largely excluded by keeping 
out the dirt. The efficiency of this method, however, does not depend 
upon a removal by straining out the visible dirt, for under such conditions, 
the bacteria adherent to these particles are washed off and cannot be re- 
moved by filtering or straining. If the milk is kept at a low temperature, 
the development of the bacteria in the same is greatly retarded. These or- 
ganisms obey the laws that govern the growth of all plant life, and just as 
our cereal grains will not grow in early spring or winter, so the bacteria 
present in the milk are greatly checked in their development or even pre- 
vented from growth by lowering the temperature of the milk. 



"ii is tlie glorious prerogative of the empire of knowledge 
that what it gains it never loses. On the contrary, it in- 
creases by the multiple of its own power. All its ends 
become means ; all its attainments help to new conquests.'" 

— Webster. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTION FOR CITIES AND TOWNS. 



DY A. W. BITTING, M. D., INSPECTOR, CITY BOARD OF HEALTH, LABORATORY 
OF COMPARATIVE PATHOLOGY, INDIANA AGRICUL- 
TURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 

Lafayette, Incl. 

There is no food product in general use that is more wholesome than 
milk. It is palatable, easily digestible, and highly nutritious. Its nutritive 
qualities are recognized by physicians in that they recommend it as the prin- 
cipal article of diet for weak or sick patients suffering from almost all forms 
of disease. Milk cannot be made the exclusive diet for the adult as it is 
for the child but it can be made to have a much larger part in the daily 
diet than is now given to it. By analysis it has been found that a quart of 
milk contains essentially the same nutritive value as three-fourths of a pound 
of steak. Upon this basis a quart of milk would have a' real value of from 
nine to twelve cents when steak has a value of from twelve to sixteen cents. 
The price of milk, however, usually ranges from five to eight cents and the 
greater proportion is sold for less than six and one-quarter cents. The milk 
has an advantage over steak in that its nutrients are practically all digestible 
while some of the nutritive qualities of the steak are lost as a result of cook- 
ing. Records upon the cost of diets in which milk was a large factor as 
compared with diets in which this article was practically absent, confirm 
the results of the laboratory analysis. When the persons were using large 
quantities of milk they used less of other and more costly materials so that 
the result was a distinct saving. In cities milk is used more in the nature 
of a condiment rather than as a food. It is used to season coffee and tea, 
upon fruits, and as an adjunct to the cooking rather than as a staple article 
of diet. A quart of milk per day is made to serve for all purposes for a 
family of four or more persons and when the milk bill exceeds six or seven 
cents per day they consider themselves extravagant. This feeling is so 
deeply seated that it will be a long time before the woman who orders the 
kitchen supplies will see the economy of ordering two quarts i of milk at six 
cents each instead of one and a half pounds of steak at sixteen cents 
although the saving would be twelve cents. 

The very qualities which make milk such a desirable food also render 
it undesirable from another standpoint. It is an ideal medium for the 

119 



120 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

growth of almost all forms of bacteria and from the very nature of things 
cannot be produced or handled in a commercial way without becoming 
more or less contaminated. Some germs even invade the udder; hair, 
scales, particles of manure, dirt and dust fall into the bucket during the 
milking, bacteria float in the air of the stable and add a greater or less num- 
ber, depending upon the length of time the milk is allowed to stand after 
being drawn; the buckets are two often unclean or rinsed with water that 
is germ laden and thus adds to the quota already present. From all 
these sources and other exposures necessary in the handling of milk it is 
not surprising that there may be several thousand germs in each cubic 
centimeter (small thimble full) before it even starts on its way to the cus- 
tomer. If the milk be permitted to stand without cooling and be delivered 
from large milk cans by dipping as is the usual custom, it gives additional 
exposure to street dust, to the questionably clean receptacle, to the air of 
the dwelling room or kitchen, and tests made upon such milk may show from 
one hundred thousand to more than a million germs per cubic centimeter at 
or within a short time after delivery. The rate with which germs multiply 
at ninety degrees, the temperature at which much milk is delivered during 
the summer, is so rapid that we can easily see the necessity for dairymen 
making two deliveries per day during the summer months. 

Fortunately most of the forms which find their way into the milk are 
comparatively harmless or only produce a souring. The most common 
danger is from forms that will produce poisons that may cause diarrhoea or 
intestinal disturbances. These products affect children more than the 
adult and are responsible for many deaths under the more familiar names 
of cholera infantum and summer complaint. A number of out breaks of 
infectious disease, especially typhoid fever, have been traced to the milk 
supply; not from the cattle but from the water or affected patients hand- 
ling the milk. Scarlet fever is another disease that seems to be carried in 
the same way occasionally. It is not often that disease is carried directly 
from the animals. Tuberculosis is the disease that is most common to 
people and cattle but the number of cases contracted from the use of milk 
is not now considered to be so large as it formerly was. All diseases whether 
constitutional or local to the mammary gland may exert an unwholesome 
influence. 

The city dairyman is interested in the changes which, milk undergoes 
largely from the standpoint of souring. It is imperative that he should 
deliver milk that is sweet and that will remain in that condition until it 
can be used. Rapid souring of milk makes it necessary for him to deliver 
his product twice a day during the heated term or nearly five months of 
the year. In a city of only 25,000 population it means the driving of twenty 
or more wagons, as many drivers, and about thirty horses an extra half day 
on the road. It means an extra traveling of from 150 to 200 miles each 
day or a total of 30,000 miles during the season without additional com- 
pensation for the trouble. It means very early rising and a very long day's 



PRODUCTION OF MILK FOR CITY USE. 121 

work that makes the business distasteful. Whatever methods that are 
practicable that will lessen this cost of delivery should not only be welcomed 
but sought after. It has been demonstrated by experience that milk may 
be so handled that one delivery per day will suffice and that the methods 
necessary to secure this result will also make a better product for consump- 
tion. It works to the advantage of the producer and consumer. The es- 
sentials are cleanliness and a fairly low temperature. The former is hard 
to secure, the latter may be obtained cheaply. 

Milk of good quality can only be obtained from cattle capable of pro- 
ducing a good quality. A dairyman with nondescript cattle can not hope 
to compete with his neighbor having high grade or pure bred Jerseys. 
Neither feed nor surroundings can compensate for breed characteristics in 
the per cent, of fat present. A high grade milk should contain five per 
cent, or more of butterfat, a good milk four per cent, or more, while a milk 
containing only three per cent, must be considered low. Probably 80 per 
cent, of the milk delivered in cities will contain from three to four per cent, 
of fat, 15 per cent, will contain between four and five per cent., and five per 
cent, will contain more than five per cent, of fat. Dairies in which the 
cattle are common stock selected upon the basis of the amount of milk 
produced, and kept only for a short time and then turned over to the butcher 
as fatted stock, are never high grade. In fact they are not high grade in 
quantity as an exact record is not kept, and when such is made for a com- 
parison it is disappointingly low. A dairy in which there is frequent 
change can not have a uniform set of milkers; cows are less docile and are 
more predisposed to disease and to injuries from each other. As long as 
milk is sold by the quart volume and not upon its quality, the dairyman 
delivering three per cent, milk receiving the same as the one delivering 
five per cent, milk, so long will there be a preponderance of poor dairies. 

It is almost unnecessary to say that the herd must be healthy. Only 
the most unscrupulous will willingly or knowingly milk a cow that is dis- 
eased. Some will milk a cow having garget in one quarter and some will 
milk a tuberculous animal not realizing the danger that may come from it. 
In all herds there should be ample provision of separation of animals at 
breeding periods. 

The stable arrangement and conditions are very important factors 
in the preservation of the health of the herd and in the ease with which 
cleanliness may be secured. From a hygienic standpoint some of the newest 
and most expensive dairies are most at fault. It is the proper plan and 
not the amount of expense that is put into a stable that determines its 
fitness. In the recently constructed dairies tight siding to secure warmth 
has taken the place of the loosely constructed stables, but no adequate 
means for ventilation has been given to compensate for this lessened circu- 
lation of air. The cubic air space allotted to animals in a number of barns 
was found to be from 250 to 300 cubic feet or from one-fourth to one-third 
the amount that should be allotted. The object has been to secure warmth 



122 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

by retaining the heat radiated from the animal body, little realizing that it 
means the repeated inhalation of poisoned air that in the long run must 
have a prejudicial effect upon the animal,' weakening the body and pre- 
disposing to disease. In dairy barns there are two tvpes with reference to 
the arrangement of the cattle in stalls; one with the heads facing a common 
feed floor, and one in which the heads are toward the wall with an alley 
separating the rows for removing manure, etc. The former has an advan- 
tage in feeding, but it brings the heads of so many cows together that the 
breath from one is thrown into the face of the one directly across, 
and frequently into that of each of those standing on either side of the one 
facing as well as those at her own side. Crowded into three and one-half 
foot stalls, or four foot stalls and a feed way of four feet.it virtually causes 
six animals to rebreathe the air exhaled from each other. This arrange- 
ment can not be too quickly abandoned as a proper dairy arrangement. 
The type of arrangement in which the cattle face the wall obviates the ob- 
jection to the former arrangement in part. If the partitions separating 
the animals arc high enough so that each is practically separated from the 
neighbor on either side it is probably the best arrangement that can be 
given. It does offer an advantage in the cleaning of the stable that com- 
pensates for the lesser advantage in feeding. It is a custom, too, to place 
two cows in one seven and one-half foot stall. The writer has never seen 
the special reason for it. If two animals can stand in a stall, why not more? 
why have partitions at all? Each animal should have an individual stall 
and the partition between of sufficient height and length to prevent injury 
from one animal stepping on another, and to prevent befouling. In the 
double stall arrangement, or no stall arrangement, the animals are frequently 
injured, and in every stable there will be plenty of examples cf uncleanliness. 
The fixed stanchion too is a cruelty. It puts the animal's neck in the same 
relation as would a man's body if stretched in bed and not permitted to 
turn. The moveable stanchion or tie is much to be preferred. The 
stable should have plenty of windows. Light is the cheapest disinfectant, 
and with plenty of windows it can act all the time and not being dependent 
upon the memory of an employe, or the feeling that it is costing something 
without giving adequate returns. It does possess an advantage that some 
either fail to appreciate or must feel that it costs too much, that it does 
make it easier for both the stock and the helpers to find their way. 

All stables should be disinfected regularly whether disease has occurred 
or not. It is a precaution that should be followed as regularly and for the 
same reasons as the careful housekeeper cleans house. For disinfection 
there is probably nothing better than good whitewash. It will destroy the 
germs with which it comes in contact, makes the place whiter and there- 
fore lighter for the constant destruction of germs. After once being ap- 
plied it is necessary to re-apply in order to keep the place clean and the 
necessity for cleanliness in this respect will have its influence upon other 
phases of the dairy work. It is cheap and can be most economically 



PRODUCTION OF MILK FOR CITY USE. 123 

applied by means of the spray pump, such as is used in spraying potatoes or 
other garden crops. It should be used" on sides and ceiling twice a year 
and on the stalls oftener. The disinfection by formaldehyde or sulphurous 
acid gas is not practicable in barns. 

The newer idea of having a large enclosed shed or yard has much to 
commend it. The cattle are given their liberty at all times except while being, 
milked and fed. They may move about from place to place to feed 
and may drink whenever they so desire. They have light exercise, are 
assured protection from the storms of winter, and the extremes of summer, 
have plenty of light and ventilation and are more easily kept clean than 
under any other condition. The milking stable can be kept cleaner, and 
free from odor, a marked advantage in the handling of the milk. There 
is no full gutter or breath-fouled air to give up its objectionable properties. 
The shed scheme is the sanitary idea and rapidly growing in favor where 
understood. It is economical in construction but much more so in the 
cattle management. A large number of tests of the air in such a shed and 
milking room have been compared with the conditions found in all sorts of 
dairies with the advantage decidedly in favor of the shed. The barn idea with 
all its ancient history will not be soon displaced by such a scientific im- 
provement. 

The teaching at the present time is to the effect that food has but 
little influence upon the quality of milk, that quality is dependent upon 
breed characters. Food may temporarily change the quality as in the 
better feeding of an animal that is in a very poor condition will increase 
the per cent, of fat, but not beyond the normal, and it will remain there 
after the animal body has attained its equilibrium. Some foods exercise 
a prejudicial effect as onions, cabbage, turnips, etc.. decayed foods, and 
milk from animals fed upon such food is considered adulterated. Ensilage, 
especially if quite sour, and brewers' grains will give an unusual flavor that 
will almost wholly or completely pass away after continuous use of the feed. 
The effect of food upon the quantity of milk is very much greater than 
upon the quality. 

There has never been any question as to the use of hay, fodder, straw, 
and the grains and mill by-products as feed for dairy cattle. There has 
been objection to the use of brewers' grains, distillery slops, the swill from 
starch factories and other fermented foods. In a few instances ensilage has 
come under the ban as objectionable. The feeders have maintained that 
these were proper food stuffs and have been supported in their contention 
by chemists and experimenters. Boards of Health have often maintained 
that the milk exercised some injurious effects. In our investigations we 
found it to be an almost invariable rule that the milk from dairies in which 
such feeds were used, that there would be a more rapid souring of the milk 
than from the dairies in which sweet feed alone was used. Whether 
this change was due to the greatly increased number of fermentive bacteria 
present in such stables, or to some less stable compounds in the milk, was 



124 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

not determined. The belief is that it is more probably due to the former 
cause. It was further found that taking the feeders of malted or fermented 
food as a class and comparing the per cent, of butterfat present with the 
per cent, of fat present in the milk supplied by those using only sweet feed, 
that there was a difference in favor of the latter. The average tests from 
twenty-five herds using malt grains was 3.5 per cent, of fat. The average 
of thirty-four herds using sweet feed was 3.95 per cent, of fat. The effect 
of ensilage could not be determined in this test as no dairyman in this vicin- 
ity uses it. It was also observed that the dairies supplying the creamery 
also had a higher per cent, of fat than those using the malt feed. The 
difference in the cattle and surroundings would hardly account for this 
condition. The creamery does not buy on the basis of a butterfat test, 
and never makes a test, so that could not be a stimulant to a higher 
grade of milk or protect against a water adulteration. 

The water supply is of even greater importance than the food. The 
water supplies a double purpose, that for the animals, and cleansing and 
rinsing the vessels and cooling the milk. The food can affect the milk only 
as it may influence the animal and as particles may accidentally gain en- 
trance during the milking process. The water is used directly upon the 
buckets, cans, and other appliances, and if it be contaminated it adds its 
infection instead of taking away. It is not contended that impure water 
may pass through the cows and affect the milk, but that the great danger 
is from its use upon the vessels. It should be that a water unfit for 
domestic use should never be used for cattle to drink or in any dairy opera- 
tion. A dairy cow demands a very large amount of water daily, from 12 
to 16 gallons, and safety demands that the water be of known purity. The 
water from a tubular well is a much safer water from a hygienic standpoint 
than that from any other source. The water from a twenty-foot driven 
well must come from the bottom, and little contamination need be expected, 
while that from a dug well of any depth will receive more or less drainage 
from the surface. The location of a well at or near the stockyard, espe- 
cially if it be an open well, is wrong because it will receive drainage. Such 
wells have been responsible for many of the most alarming outbreaks of 
typhoid fever and unaccountable sickness. The contamination of course 
coming from a patient in the house of the dairyman or from a helper. 

It is not an easy matter to obtain water at all places, and when such 
must be gotten from dug wells, they should be located some distance from 
the yard and the water piped to the point at which it is wanted. All dairies 
in cities should be compelled to use water from the city service or from 
tested wells. 

Much has been published during the past few years upon the number 
of bacteria that gain access to the milk during the operation of milking. 
A large number of tests were made to determine this matter at .the Purdue 
Experiment Station during the years 1895 and 1896. The tests were made 
under as large variety of conditions as possible, commercial dairies of all 



PRODUCTION OF MILK FOR CITY USE. 125 

descriptions, and in private dairies that were kept in an exceptional manner. 
The average number of germs falling upon a surface the size of the usual 
milking pail, in four minutes, the average time for milking one cow, was 
17,680 in the average dairy; in a good dairy it was 8,080, and in a dairy 
having a separate milking room and taking the precaution to wipe off the 
sides of the animal and udder, 720 germs. In some of the very poor and 
unclean places the total number ran up into the hundred thousands. The ad- 
vantage coming from carefully cleaning and wiping the animal with a damp 
cloth was so great that the precaution can not be omitted in any high class 
dairy. It is not possible for all dairymen to have separate milking rooms, 
roomy stables, or as much light and ventilation as science demands, but 
they can all use this simple precaution. Another precaution of no small 
meaning is that of emptying the first milk from each quarter on the floor. 
The first milk drawn contains an immense number of germs as compared 
with that drawn later. In our own experiments it was found that 
in eleven successive milkings the first milk showed the following num- 
ber of bacteria to be present per cubic centimeter: 122,400; 1,353,600; 
15,400; 12,800; 32,000; 8,000; 14,400; 8,200; 5,000; 22,000 and 6,000. The 
following is the average number found in the whole milk as taken from six 
cows, the first milk not being saved; 10,600, 2.000, 2,000, 2,000, 2,200, 
2,400 and 1,800, while the average for whole milk and the first milk not 
drawn will be from 8,000 to 15,000 for the year. 

The milk should be removed from the stable as soon as drawn to avoid 
contamination from the air and to prevent the absorption of odors. The 
milk should not be strained in the stable, but this is preferable if done directly 
into the large can than to allow it to stand. It is not an uncommon practice 
to find the milkmen feed the cattle on sour slop immediately before milk- 
ing, and without washing the hands go through the milking operation, and 
as soon as through strain the milk into the ten or fifteen gallon route can 
at a point within a few feet of the sour slop trough. Under such condi- 
tions it is impossible to produce a milk that will keep, and makes the second 
delivery a necessity. 

When milk is first drawn it has a temperature of about 100 degrees 
Fahrenheit. It will lose a part of this heat and come to the same tempera- 
ture as its surroundings in a greater or less length of time, depending 
upon the bulk and the surface exposed to radiation. If left in the 
large bulk of the eight or fifteen gallon can. the cooling process is slow, as 
there is little surface from which to lose the animal heat, and nothing to 
force the rapid circulation of all parts of the milk in the can to the surface. 
In order to more effectively accomplish the cooling of milk, special apparatus 
has been designed to reduce the milk to a very thin layer and to bring a 
lower temperature into immediate proximity for the rapid absorption of 
the heat. This is so effectively done that en even small coolers a pound of 
milk will be spread over a surface of 8,000 square inches and from ten to 
thirty degrees of heat removed in five seconds. An eight gallon can of 



126 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

milk will flow over the cooler in about twelve or fifteen minutes and lose 
from twenty to twenty-five degrees of heat by simply using the ordinary 
well water. The same can if set into a tub of water at the same tempera- 
ture would require from one hour to one hour and a half to accomplish the 
same result. 

The effectiveness of a cooler depends upon the area of exposure and 
the degree of coldness that may be maintained within itself to abstract 
the heat. No cooler will abstract more heat than it gives off. If one hundred 
pounds of freshly drawn milk passes over it and gives off twenty-five 
degrees of heat.it will necessitate that one hundred pounds of water be used 
at a temperature of fifty degrees. If it is desired to cool the milk more 
than twenty-five degrees it will require a greater proportion of water. To 
cool one hundred pounds of milk on a cooler will require as much water 
to cool it standing in a tub, less the amount of loss from radiation 
due to the longer exposure. The surface exposure of the ordinary shot- 
gun can is 440 square inches, and eight gallon milk can is 872 inches, but the 
layer of milk in contact with the surface is not changed rapidly. 

A series of tests were made of the cooling of milk as set in the ordinary 
can and set in the tub, by suspending thermometers at distances of one inch 
from the surface to the center. The milk was not agitated and the cool- 
ing was more uniform than was anticipated. Milk seems to be a better 
conductor of heat than water, and while the difference in temperature of 
the water on the outside and the milk on the inside was quite marked, cur- 
rents were set up that made the cooling quite uniform. When this differ- 
ence in temperature became less pronounced the currents almost ceased 
and further reduction was very slow. 

The special advantage to be derived from the use of the cooler is not 
so much in the economy of ice or water used, as is so often claimed by the 
manufacturers, but in the sudden chilling of the milk and thus arresting 
bacterial growth. The sudden reduction of temperature seems to have 
the effect of shock and checks the power to multiply. The reduction of 
temperature to the same degree, but by slow means, is not so effective. 
The same principle is recognized in pasteurizing; it does not depend simply 
upon the raising the temperature to a high degree, but almost to the same 
extent upon its sudden lowering. In the ordinary method of cooling milk by 
setting the cans in tubs of water, the time of cooling is nearly two hours, 
sufficient time for considerable multiplication. A second advantage in 
the use of special coolers is in the aeration, the getting rid of much animal 
odor and absorption of oxygen that has a detrimental effect upon some 
forms. A study was made upon the number of bacteria present in milk 
at every hour during forty-eight hours, using milk that had not been cooled, 
milk that had been cooled and left at room temperature, and milk that 
had been cooled and kept cool. The room temperature was ninety-three 
degrees and the cooling was done to fifty-four degrees, as that was the water 
temperature without the use of ice. The results often showed as much 



PRODUCTION OF MILK FOR CITY USE. 127 

change in the uncooled milk in six hours as in the cooled that was kept 
cool in twenty-four or thirty hours. Tests upon acidulation fully agree 
with the bacterial tests. 

Milk is delivered in four ways; by dipping from *arge cans, by drawing 
from the bottom of the can, by carrying it in small cans sufficient for only 
a few customers, and in glass jars of standard quantity, as quarts and pints. 
Fully nine-tenths of the milk sold in cities is delivered by the first method. 
Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. The delivery by 
dipping from the large can is the most objectionable from a sanitary stand- 
point. To empty a fifteen gallon can will necessitate the removal of the 
lid on an average of 62 times. From our observations there will be four 
half gallon customers, forty-six quart customers, and twelve pint custo- 
mers. This means that in the time required to empty one can of milk 
the top is removed and there is exposure for from thirty to forty minutes, 
sufficient time for the entrance of from one hundred to one hundred and 
fifty thousand germs on a dry summer day, and four hundred thousand on 
a very dusty day. If the lid be made to fit into the top of the can instead 
of fitting over it, it is an easy matter to allow as many more to be deposited 
in removing and putting on the top. In the delivery of the product of 
one day, some of the larger dairymen have the milk exposed to street con- 
tamination for a period of fully two hours. The catching of 100,000 or 
400,000 germs in fifteen gallons of milk is not such a large number when 
we consider that bad milk may contain as many as 3, 000,00° germs in 
fifteen drops. It is the very rapid multiplication of these germs that causes 
the unwholesome changes. 

In the delivery of milk by either the dipping process or by drawing 
from the bottom, the infection does not end with the delivery to the customer. 
The milk is nearly always received in an open vessel and carried into the 
house, another period of exposure; sometimes not placed in a proper storage 
place as soon as received, another exposure; and not infrequently received 
in vessels used for the same purpose on the previous day, and having only 
been rinsed they act as a starter for new growth, another exposure. The 
dairyman may plead that he is not responsible for what happens to the 
milk after it leaves his hands, but if the delivery can be made to avoid all 
these injurious influences, it is so much to his credit. The delivery of 
milk by drawing has an advantage over dipping just so. far as it prevents 
street infection. The small pail is used only to a very limited extent but 
has the advantage of little exposure. The glass jar is decidedly preferable 
to any of these methods. It obviates all exposure on the street and in 
delivery, the milk is kept in its package until ready for use, and only such 
forms are present as gained entrance at the time of bottling, and the num- 
ber depends upon their multiplication. The most serious objection that 
can be urged against the use of the bottle is that it may be used in the home 
where there may be sickness on one day and in another family on the suc- 
ceeding day. This demands that the bottles be thoroughly cleaned and 



128 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

sterilized; otherwise they might become a serious menace to health. No 
bottle should ever be accepted from a customer as being clean, but be sub- 
jected to a thorough cleaning process, and steam sterilisation. The bottle 
insttres uniform quality to all customers, a lessened churning effect, and 
the maximum of cleanliness. The objection from the standpoint of the 
producer is the expense and loss from breakage. In the examination of 
city milk it has been found that the bottled milk was delivered at a uniformly 
lower temperature, kept longer, and one delivery each day sufficed eyen in 
the hottest weather. If by the extra care in milking, cooling and bot- 
tling, one delivery may be made to suffice, the cost may be reduced below 
that of two deliveries under old methods. 

A test was made of the quality of milk from the top to the bottom of 
cans by both the dipping and drawing process. A sample was taken after 
the delivery of each gallon. The record is as follows: 

Per cent, of fat in the milk. 
Sample. Dipped. Drawn 

1 3.6 1.0 

2 3.0 3.9 

3 3.0 4.1 

4 3.0 4.1 

5 3.0 4.3 

6 3.0 4.2 

7 3.0 4.2 

8 3.0 4.3 

9 3.0 4.3 

10 3.0 4.3 

11 3.0 4.4 

12 3.0 4.2 

There can be no greater uniformity in bottled milk than is shown in 
these samples. 

Milk can be produced and delivered under such conditions that one 
delivery a day will suffice. The requirments are not theoretical but prac- 
tical and are in operation. Clean cattle, clean stables, clean milking, separat- 
ing for purifying purposes, cooling, and delivering in cans will secure the 
end. The separator and cooler must some time become as much the equip- 
ment of the dairyman as the ice-chest is of that of the butcher. The cost 
of these things is not great. It does not mean cement floors and tiled milk 
rooms, but the application of a few scientific principles under conditions 
that are attainable when the knowing how is present. 

Nearly every phase of dairying from a study of breeds, feeds, barns, 
handling of milk, butter and cheese making have been the subject of many 
experiments. The question of city supply is as yet almost untouched. 
How much labor might be saved by improved methods of handling, by 
a common separating, cooling and bottling plant, and by a more modern 
system of delivery and other questions of equal importance, is yet unknown. 



MILKING, COOLING AND GENERAL CARE OF MILK 
FOR DELIVERY TO CREAMERY. 



BY PROF. E. H. FARR1NGTON, OF THE WISCONSIN DAIRY SCHOOL. 

Madison, Wis. 

Nearly every farmer has probably either heard or read about the man 
being a public benefactor who makes two blades of grass grow where for- 
merly there was but one. The statement is often quoted and the truth 
of it is acknowledged by all in theory at least. It 
is easy to comprehend the meaning of two hay 
crops in one year, but some of us fail to realize 
that the second one may be the reward of extra 
care and attention. The accomplishment of great 
things by watchfulness over small things is as 
possible on the farm as it is in any other line of 
business, and in no branch of agriculture is there 
a better profit paid for constant attention to 
details than there is in the dairy. Very few, if 
any, food products are so susceptible to defects 
or so easily contaminated as is milk, and still the 
protection of its purity until it reaches the con- 
sumer is largely a matter of common cleanliness, 
— a very simple duty, but one which, when 
faithfully performed, will more than pay for the 
effort made. 

Directions for the proper handling of milk 
have been printed over and over again. The 
rules given generally include an old story, familiar 
to many a milk producer, which I am repeating 
in order, first, to refresh the memory of some 
who may need to be reminded of things forgotten, second, to induce 
others to do as well as they know how to do, and third, to overcome any 
tendency all may have to slight the little things that are known to be 
important for preserving the natural purity of milk. 

In taking up the discussion of this subject it is hoped that some of 
this old story may make a new impression on those who have heard it many 

129 




RAILROAD MILK CAN. 
'•New York" Factory Can. 



130 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 




IRON-CLAD TIN MILK PAIL. 



times before and that it may possibly furnish a new idea or two to those 
who are less familiar with the subject. 

The Milker's Responsibility. When a man is milking, he should 
bear in mind that he is handling a food product which will undoubtedly 

be placed on the tables of many 
people in essentially the same con- 
dition that it is obtained from him. 
He should be just as particular and 
as careful when milking to supply 
his customers or a factory as he 
is when rilling the glass pitcher 
which his wife or child brings him 
when milking and asks to have it 
filled for his own supper table. 

Many of our food products 
are "purified by fire," or cooked 
before they appear on the table, but 
milk and its products are, as a rule, 
used raw with all the impurities 
that may have gotten into them on 
the way from the cow to the table. 
The consumer does not like to be reminded of these possibilities of con- 
tamination and he will therefore gladly pay an extra price for milk 
which is known to be clean and wholesome. 
Milk is sometimes a source of posi- 
tive danger to a community as it has been 
demonstrated that diseases may be spread 
by the milk supply from one farm to 
many households. When such conta- 
gious diseases as typhoid fever, diphtheria, 
scarlet fever, etc,, occur in a family sell- 
ing milk, the fact should at once be made 
known to the proper authorities and the 
milk produced on that farm should be 
disposed of as directed by them. A sick 
person or one convalescing from any 
contagious disease, or any one acting as a 
nurse for the sick, should not be allowed 
in the cow stable or permitted to take 
care of the cows. He also should neither be allowed to handle nor de- 
liver the milk, as it is one of the best food materials for disease germs. 
They thrive and multiply with alarming rapidity in milk. It is therefore 
necessary to use every precaution possible to prevent the spreading of 
diseases by criminal carelessness in handling milk from an infected locality. 




ELGIN MILK STRAINER. 



MILK FOR DELIVERY TO CREAMERY. 



131 




MILK COOLER AND 
AERATOR. 



The Milker's Preparation. The milker should wash his hands 
with soap and water just before milking and wipe them dry with a clean towel. 
His finger nails should be cut close so as not to injure or irritate the cow. 
No loud talking should be permitted during milking. Go about this work 
promptly and quietly, with as much regularity in the time of milking as 
is possible. Some successful dairymen milk their cows "by the watch" 
and are very particular about the exact time each 
cow is milked. They are also careful to have the 
same cows milked by the same men in the same order. 
Experience has taught them that regularity in milk- 
ing aids in developing a tendency to prolong the 
period of lactation. 

Always milk with dry hands; moistening the 
hands with milk or water during milking is one of 
the most filthy practices imaginable. 

The Milk Pail. One of the best modern milk 
pails is covered with a double strainer cloth between 
which there is a thick layer of absorbent cotton. 
This pail is provided with a spout through which the 
milk is poured out ; while milk- 
ing, this spout is covered 
with a tin cap. A covered 
milk pail that protects the milk from falling 
dust and dirt during milking is much to be pre- 
ferred to the open pail. A wire gauze placed over 
the opening in a milk pail cover is better than no 
cover, but a strainer cloth placed over the wire 
gauze is still better, and absorbent cotton in addi- 
tion to the cloth and gauze is the best protection. 
If covered milk pails were more generally used 
there would be less complaint about sour or 
tainted milk. Anyone thinking of using absor- 
bent cotton must remember, however, that it 
should be used but once and then burned; the 
accumulation of dirt, loose hair, etc., on the cotton 
furnishes sufficient evidence of the necessity of 
using it as a protection against impurities in milk. 
Wooden Pails should not be used, as they 
easily get sour and can only be kept thoroughly 
clean when new. Tin pails ought to have all seams and cracks flushed 
smooth with solder in order to make them easy to clean. This soldering 
should be done when the pails are bought and before they are taken home. 
The Cow Stable and Yard. Cows ought to be milked in a com- 
fortable, clean, thoroughly drained and well lighted place. Ventilation 
is best secured by some well constructed and easily operated device rather 




IOWA" OR "DUBUQUE" 
FACTORY CAN 



132 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

than by loose boards or accidental holes in a window. The walls and ceil- 
ing of the stable may be purified by a coat of whitewash which can be effect- 
ually applied with a spray pump ; this ought to be done several times in a 
year. Some cow stalls are covered with straw or old hay placed on boards 
with large cracks between them. No amount of whitewash will keep such 
a ceiling in a sanitary condition. Chaff and loose straw dropping through 
the cracks are a constant source of dust and dirt during milking; the floor 
above the cows ought to be as tight as the walls of the stable. 

The gutters and the mangers of the cow stable should be cleaned out 
daily and plaster or clean bedding spread over the floor. 

Cows should be tied or stalled in a humane way, made contented in 
every particular and liberally fed. No loud talking should be permitted 
during milking and anything that will excite the cows must be avoided. 
Driving them from pasture in a hurry or chasing the cows with dogs will 
diminish both the quantity and the quality of the milk. 

Cleaning the Cows. A gentle brushing or carding of the cows every 
day will be found to be very beneficial to them; if this is not done regu- 
larly, the flanks and udder of a cow should be brushed just before milking 
in order to remove all loose hair and dirt that might fall into the pail during 
milking. The mud which cows have gotten on their legs and udders should 
be brushed off before milking is begun, and before the pails are brought 
to the stable so that the dust will not settle on the tinware and thus get 
into the milk. 

Washing the udder is to be recommended if it is wiped dry before 
milking begins. The foremilk or the first few streams drawn from the teats 
may be kept separate from the rest as it contains many bacterial impurities. 
The difference between the first milk drawn and that obtained after the ducts 
and passages of the udder are rinsed by milking a short time may be shown 
by keeping some of both in separate clean bottles and noticing how much 
more quickly the foremilk sours than that obtained later. 

Milk the Cows Dry. A great many milkers are in too much of a 
hurry to get through milking to milk the cows dry. This loss may amount 
to one-half a pound of milk from each cow at every milking, as was found 
to be the case by a farmer who followed his hired man and milked all the 
cows after him. By this second milking he got over a pound from some 
cows and less than one-half a pound from others, but from ten cows he got five 
pounds of strippings at one milking. This to some does not seem to be 
a very large amount of milk to bother with, but if milking in general was 
done so carelessly, the total loss of milk in the United States from lazy milking 
would amount to sixteen million pounds per day, This startling figure . 
is undoubtedly as correct as the statistical reports which give the num- 
ber Of milch cows in the United States as 16,292,360, and it shows that a 
great saving may be made by milking the cows dry. The last milk or strip- 
pings is also much richer than the first milk so that it is worth an extra 
effort to obtain it. Another point which should be considered in milking 



MILK FOR DELIVERY TO CREAMERY. 



133 




cows is the quickness with which the milking is done. Fast milking has 
been found to give better results than slow milking. 

The Milk Cans into which the milk is strained must not be left stand- 
ing in the stable where the cows are being milked. The stable odor or 
dust may contaminate the milk unless it is at once taken to another room 

or into the pure outside air 
where the straining into cans 
may be done. 

Health of the Cows. Milk 
from a cow having any kind of 
disease should not be used for 
human food. Sore teats, a 
caked udder or anything that 
causes bloody milk must be 
cured before the milk is usable, 
milk from healthy cows ought 
not to be used until six days 
after calving; some authorities 

CURTIS WIRE-CLOTH MILK STRAINER. alsQ refuse to accept milk for 

thirty days before calving or when a cow gives less than six pounds 
per day. 

Injurious Food. Decayed or musty grain or feed is unfit food for 
milch cows as it has an injurious effect on the products made from it as 
in fact on the cow herself. Musty hay and decayed 
silage are as bad as musty grain; certain kinds of 
roots, rape, etc., should only be fed in such a way as 
to leave the milk free from taint or odor, which can 
be done by feeding these foods directly after milk- 
ing; wet brewers' grains must be fed with caution; 
on account of the strong odor from this by-product 
and similar feeds, the milk will be contaminated un- 
less removed at once from the stables after milking. 
Musty litter or bedding should be avoided as the 
dust from it will get into the milk in spite of all care. 

Pure Water. This is as essential for cows as it 
is for humanity, and nothing but deep well — spring 
— or pure running water is fit for cows. Pond 
holes or stagnant water must be fenced in so that the 
cows will not drink from them; serious defects in 
milk, butter and cheese have been traced to a pond 
hole or to swampy land through which cows had 
walked. The mud and dirt from such places clings to 
the legs, body and udder of the cow and if these are Mounted on Factory Can - 
not groomed the dirt gets into the milk and contaminates both it and 
the products made therefrom. Watering troughs must be cleaned 




MILK AERATOR 



134 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 




STAR MILK COOLING SYSTEM. 



regularly and one found to contain rusty iron or decayed wood ought to 
be repaired or replaced. Fresh water should be pumped daily if the cows 
are watered at the stable. Two water tanks are sometimes provided at 
dairy farms and a milk-house built over one of them. The water is 

pumped by a wind-mill through the milk- 
house tank containing the cans of milk 
and then passes on to the stock watering 
tank, This makes a very satisfactory ar- 
rangement for keeping the milk cool when 
the wind blows, but when there is no wind 
the water must be pumped some other way. 
Such a milk-house should be well ventilated 
and kept clean. The water tanks ought to 
be regularly scrubbed so that the cows may 
always be supplied with an abundance of 
pure, clean water. 

Straining Milk. If a covered milking 
pail has not been used, the milk must be 
poured through a cloth strainer made of cot- 
ton flannel or 
of four thick- 
nesses of cheese cloth. A wire gauze strainer 
is not sufficient, and when the milk is dirty 
or a large amount of it is strained, the cloth 
should be changed as soon as any accumu- 
lation of dirt from the milk is noticed on the 
strainer. Milk should never be strained in 
the stable. 

Aeration of Milk. Milk is benefited 
more from mixing pure air with it as soon 
as possible after milking than from almost any 
other method of handling. The flavor is es- 
pecially improved by aeration, and when the 
milk is also suddenly cooled at this time it 
will keep sweet much longer than milk 
which has not received this treatment. 

A great many good milk aerators are on 
the market. A certain amount of aeration 
may be obtained by dipping the milk with a 
long-handled dipper, lifting it high in the air 
and pouring it into the can again. This dipping should be repeated occa- 
sionally for an hour or more after milking, but as it is not so thorough 
and takes more time than pouring the milk over an aerator and cooler 




CHEESE FACTORY CAN. 



MILK FOR DELIVERY TO CREAMERY. 



135 



as soon as each cow is milked, an aerator should be bought and used. 

Cooling Milk. Immediately after milking the temperature of milk 

ought to be reduced to forty or fifty degrees either by pouring it in a thin 




MILK TESTING OUTFIT. 
Milk Tester, Weighing Scales, Sample Bottles and Supplies Needed for Testing Cows. 



layer over a smooth, metal surface which is kept cold with water, ice or 
brine, or by setting the cans of milk into cold water and stirring frequently 
to hasten the cooling. The quicker this is done the better, as the sudden 



136 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

chilling of milk is very beneficial; it improves the flavor and hastens 
the separation of cream. 

There are many good milk coolers on the market and in making a 
selection the purchaser should be sure to get one that has capacity enough 
to thoroughly and quickly chill all the milk run over it. The cooler should 
never be crowded with too much milk. 

Keep Night and Morning's Milk Separate. Never mix warm 
milk with cold milk as this will spoil both. The morning and night's milk 
should be kept in separate cans until thoroughly cold. The cans of milk 
must be loosely covered and kept in a perfectly clean place protected from 
dirt and bad odors. In winter the milk should not be allowed to freeze 
and in summer it must be kept sweet without the use of any kind of pre- 
servative. In some states there are strict laws against the use of preserva- 
tives in milk. 

Delivering the Milk. During transportation the cans of milk must 
be filled to prevent churning and must be closed with tightly fitting covers 
and jackets or a canvas placed over them as a protection from dust, mud 
or rain. These coverings will aid in keeping the milk cool in extremely 
hot weather and in winter they may prevent the milk from freezing. 

Milk ought to be below sixty degrees Fahenheit when delivered to a 
factory or to any other buyer, and the nearer fifty degrees, the better for 
the milk, as this indicates that it has been thoroughly cooled at the farm. 

Buttermilk should not be returned in the sweet milk cans as the sour 
taint is very hard to remove from them. 

Washing Cans, Pails, Strainer Cloths and Tinware. All efforts 
to produce clean milk that will keep sweet for a reasonable length of time 
are useless if the pails, cans, etc., are not faithfully washed and scalded 
every day. After emptying the milk the cans should be rinsed with cold 
water, then scrubbed with frequent changes of warm water, using a brush 
to clean all the seams and cracks inside and outside the cans; they should 
then be rinsed with scalding hot water and set to dry in the sun, if possible, 
but protected from dust. Tinware should not be wiped dry with a cloth, 
but scalded with boiling hot water. All the joints and corners in pails 
and cans should be filled smooth with solder, as before stated, and those 
having rusty iron spots ought not to be used as these places may cause 
taints in the milk. One of the hardest taints to remove from cans is that 
caused by allowing milk to sour therein. The cans should be emptied 
and cleaned as soon as they are returned to the farm, and left to dry and 
air in some clean place. 

Inspection. When a can of milk is emptied the last quart should be 
as free from sediment as the first. There will be no dirt in the bottom of 
cans if the milking has been cleanly and the cans have been protected from 
dust. 

Both the odor and taste of milk should be pure and sweet when the 
can cover is first removed; perfectly sweet milk will have an acidity of 



MILK FOR DELIVERY TO CREAMERY. 



137 



less than two-tenths of one per cent, as is shown by the alkaline-tablet 
test. 

Samples of milk for inspection or for testing should be taken imme- 
diately after it has been thoroughly mixed by pouring. A certain amount 
of cream will soon rise on milk, and a fair sample cannot be secured by 
dipping a small quantity from the top of a lot of milk after it has stood 
even for a few minutes. 

If the test of one cow's milk is desired, samples of several milkings 
should be taken; there is often such a variation in richness between two 




CREAMERY PATRONS COW. 

Gave 3,303 Pounds of Milk in a Year. Worth $26.86. Milk Tested 4.2 Per Cent Fat, 
Making 163 Pounds of Butter. 



milkings of the same cow in one day that a very erroneous impression may 
be obtained from the test of one milking only. A fair sample cannot be 
taken by milking directly into a small bottle, because the milk of the-same 
milking is not of uniform richness. 

In taking samples of a cow's milk, she should be milked dry and all 
her milk thoroughly mixed by pouring from one pail to another before 
a sample for testing is taken from it. If the sample is to be sent to some 
place for testing, a little preservative should be added to the bottle and 



138 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



this filled with milk to the cork in order to prevent partial churning of the 
milk by the agitation during transportation. 

The Purity of Milk is entirely within the control of the milker. 
If the cows are healthy there is no excuse for dirty, tainted or sour milk. 
The defects most commonly met with in milk may be avoided by follow- 
ing the directions given in this brief outline. 

TESTING COWS. 

The Value of Records obtained by weighing and testing the milk 
of each cow once a week for a year has been demonstrated many times. 




CREAMERY PATRON'S COW. 

Gave 6, 938 Pounds of Milk in One Year, for Which the Creamery Paid $(i7.47. The Milk Tested 

5.2 Per Gent Fat, Making 12ti Pounds of Butter. 

Such records have been made for over two hundred cows in some oi the 
ninety-five patrons' herds supplying milk to the Wisconsin Dairy School. 
The farmers weighed the milk of each cow at the two milkings of one day, 
in some cases every week during a year, and sent small samples of each 
cow's milk to the creamery to be tested. From these tests and weights 
the total milk production of each cow was calculated. The results ob- 
tained showed that many cows were not giving anywhere near enough 



MILK FOR DELIVERY TO CREAMERY. 139 

milk in a .year to pay for the care and feed the farmers gave them. The 
cows were supported by the sweat of their owner's brow and paid him less 
than nothing for his labor. 

Some idea of the difference in the value of patron's cows may be formed 
from the records of the two cows shown in the cuts. The feed and the 
labor of milking and caring for these two cows were about the same, but 
one cow produced over forty dollars worth more milk in a year than the 
other and the milk of the poorer cow did not amount to enough to pay for 
her feed. 

In a herd of twelve cows tested for three years the milk of one cow 
was worth $110.00 more than the feed she ate, while that of five other 
cows added together only amounted to $114.00 more than their feed. One 
cow produced nearly as much profit as five cows in the same herd. 

Farmers will shoot crows, woodchucks and other animals that eat 
their crops without paying for them and why should not the unprofitable 
cows be disposed of? A pair of scales with a Babcock test will show that 
some cows are more wasteful of a farmer's labor and crops than any other 
animal on the place. 

Many farmers supply a creamery or a cheese factory with at least 100 
pounds of milk per day and receive for their milk in the neighborhood of 
four hundred dollars a year. This sum surely warrants an investment of 
ten to fifteen dollars in a milk-tester and the time to use it not only on 
the cows but to detect any errors in testing that may be made at the factory. 



"Every addition to true knowledge is an 
addition to human power." 

Horace Mann, 



"In every rank, or great or small, 
"Tis industry supports us all." 

— Gay. 



140 



NECESSITY OF MAKING GOOD BUTTER AND THE 
FARMER'S PART IN ITS PRODUCTION AND SALE. 



BY JOSEPH KOLARIK, ASSOCIATE EDITOR CHICAGO DAIRY PRODUCE. 

Chicago. 

To the farmer who has had the opportunity of coming into direct 
contact with the consumer of butter, as one who is selling butter to such 
consumer, little need be said on the first half of this subject — the necessity 
of making that butter Good. 

On the making of good butter, good all over, good all through, and 
good all around, depends the prosperity, the very income, of the farmer 
who keeps cows for the production of milk. The consumer of butter, who 
is the man out of whose pocket comes the price that means the milk pro- 
ducer's profit, has the right to dictate to the maker of butter what kind 
of butter he shall make for him. The farmer has been too slow to realize 
this. The farmer has gone right ahead and made butter — good butter, 
indifferent butter, and poor butter — as if on the assumption that the con- 
sumer had no choice in the matter and would have to take what there was 
to be had. But as population has grown and consumers of butter multi- 
plied, the demand for good butter became more and more insistent, and 
to-day is so markedly earnest that the effort of every farmer, of every 
creameryman, and every buttermaker, must be strongly enlisted in pro- 
ducing the only grade of creamery butter now wanted — the premium-taking 
Fancy Extra. 

It is this insistent demand for a uniform quality of fine butter that is 
the foundation of our present day creamery system, as it is only through 
the creameries that sufficient butter of desired flavor and uniformity and 
quantity can be produced. There is, to be sure, a great quantity of good 
butter churned in the farm dairies — millions of pounds of it — that finds 
a more or less satisfactory market and a more or less satisfied consumer. 
But wherever there is a good creamery wherein is employed a good butter- 
maker, the producer of milk will without the least question of doubt serve 
his own interests in the highest and fullest degree only when he becomes 
a regular patron of that creamery. 

"Good butter — send us good butter," is the demand from the market 
to the butter producer. The necessity of making good butter is seen in 

141 



142 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

the satisfaction good butter gives the guest at the table; it is seen in that 
relishable wholesomeness of cooked food that only good butter can im- 
part to it; it is noted again in the request of the housewife shopping at the 
store and invariably asking for "the best" quality. It is manifest again 
in the very critical examination the grocer gives the butter when buying 
it in the store of the commission merchant; from the merchant the call 
goes to the buttermaker — "good butter," "good butter." 

No greater necessity in the dairy world to-day than that of making 
Good Butter! 

So great is the necessity for good butter that the national govern- 
ment has established colleges where students may be taught those things 
that are needful to its production. So great is the necessity for good but- 
ter that no one is now considered competent to make butter in a creamery 
until he has mastered the teachings at a dairy school and served an appren- 
ticeship of one to two years in a creamery under the daily tutoring of an 
expert buttermaker, himself a trained and experienced operator. So 
great is the necessity of making only good butter that out of the need of 
the hour has sprung the organization of dairymen's and buttermakers' 
associations in every state where butter is considerably produced — their 
object being to improve that knowledge among their members that will en- 
able them to make this good butter so greatly demanded. 

Creamery buttermakers have ever been sensitive to the pulse of the 
market and strenuously responsive to its every demand for improvement. 
Creamerymen have installed new apparatus for the improvement of their 
product and again and again replaced this after a time with later designs 
of apparatus that gave promise of further improvement. New ways of 
creaming have superseded the old, new ways of cream handling have dis- 
placed old methods, new ways of churning and working butter are now 
standard — all, every bit of it, the result of the imperative necessity of 
making good butter. 

What more can the creameryman or the creamery buttermakei do? 

Let us ask — has the farmer, the creamery patron, advanced in his 
calling to the same extent as has the creamery buttermaker? 

We have the word of no less an authority than Hon. W. D. Hoard, of 
Wisconsin, on this question, who, after the most careful canvass made 
from farm to farm by trusted correspondents in creamery districts in sev- 
eral states in the summer of 1901, spoke at a state dairymen's convention 
as follows: 

"I here venture the assertion, and it is founded on evidence of the 
most convincing kind, that the average patron of the creamery is but little, 
if any, better educated as a dairyman than he was twenty-five years ago, 
and that he is producing milk today from as poor cows, and just as ex- 
pensively, as was the case twenty-five years ago. To me it is astonishing 
that the influences of progress and intelligence should affect all other branches 
of this great industry to their manifest improvement, and still the farme* - 



NECESSITY OF MAKING GOOD BUTTER. 143 

remains, with but few exceptions, right where he was a quarter of a cen- 
tury ago." 

What is it has caused this severe criticism of "the average" creamery- 
patron? In what way has the creamery patron been remiss in his calling? 

The inquiry had developed the fact that hardly any out of a hundred 
patrons knew what their cows were returning in product above the cost 
of their keep until the correspondent got what facts he could from the 
patron and- from the creamery books and figured it out. Very few knew 
except in the most general way which cows were yielding a profit and which 
were not. A very few fed a balanced ration suited to the purpose of milk 
production, and most were keeping cows of a kind that even good feeding 
and care would not make profitable milk producers. The general aver- 
age production of the dairy cows of these one hundred patrons was under 
140 pounds butter per cow per year, while in dairy districts, such as in 
Jefferson County, Wisconsin, and elsewhere, where dairying is a leading 
feature of farm work, the butter product averages 240 pounds per cow 
per year — a clear gain of 100 pounds and more of butter through the exer- 
cise of thought in both selection of cows and the special purpose of milk 
production in view in their care and feed. 

This then, is the farmer's part in the production of good butter: First, 
the having on his farm a sufficient number of cows to make it well worth 
while to provide for them the kind of feeds and give them the care they 
should have. 

Sqcond, the cows must be of a recognized milk producing type — a 
cow that does not yield 200 pounds butterfat during one year's period 
of lactation can seldom be kept at a profit. The best dairy herds now 
produce over 300 pounds per cow per year, and already some have set 
even a much higher mark. 

Third, the cows must have an ample supply of nourishing and palat- 
able food, summer and winter, and of course plenty of pure water. For 
a palatable and nourishing food for winter use there is nothing better than 
corn ensilage. 

Fourth, and fully as important as any other of the many require- 
ments in profitable dairy farming, is the care given the milk. 

Good milk — good buttermaker — good butter. Here is a trinity 
that stands all powerful between the dairy farmer and his profit — the wil- 
ling dollars of the butter consumer. Good butter — good buttermaker — 
good milk — a trinity one and inseparable, and the farmer is the beginning 
and the ending. His part it is to furnish the good milk — the alpha and 
omega of getting a fancy butter product, which again means a good mar- 
ket demand and price and a goodly share of honest profit dollars in the 
pockets of the owners of the cows. 

The necessity for producing good milk cannot too strongly be impressed 
on all who have the handling of it. Though many suggestions may be 
found of great practical utility by the patron, such as prompt removal 



144 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK, 

from the milking stalls, rapid cooling in tanks of water, to drive 
out quickly the animal heat, clean washing of cans followed by 
exposure of them to sun and air, etc., one general law, well observed, 
will suffice. 

Aim to deliver the milk at the weigh- room of the creamery as clean, 
as pure and as sweet as though every drop of it was to be used on your 
own table! 

Can dirty milk, unstrained, turning sour, smothered, tainted from 
stable exposure or otherwise, or carried in anything but sweet smelling 
cans ever reach the weighcan of the creamery under that rule? 

Whether operated by an association of farmer shareholders, by a 
stock company, by a corporation located in a distant city or by a locally 
resident owner, the creamery is ever a co-operative institution. No 
one patron can deliver milk below grade and flatter himself that because 
it passed the receiver, he is .thereby the gainer. Tis true he has gained 
temporarily what is lost by his more careful neighbors, for he has lowered 
the quality of their product to his own level, but it is not written that a 
man shall continue to prosper at the expense of others indefinitely. 

Let every milk can stand on its own bottom. Let every patron feel 
that in the chain of association for the production of good butter, he forms 
no weak link, but equally with his neighbors stands steadfast and true, 
giving of his best and asking equal worth of every other. The organi- 
zation is not perfect if any part is weak or wanting, and thus the milk 
producer must do his full share toward the attainment of that perfect re- 
sult — a market for the highest grade butter through a well managed cream- 
ery well patronized by well satisfied intelligent patrons. 

Do what the buttermaker may, the purity of the butter will never 
rise above the purity of its soiirce, therefore the better the milk the better 
the butter. Every hour every minute, the milk is exposed in stables, 
barns or other surroundings laden with flavor destroying taints, or exposed 
at temperatures above sixty degrees, its quality is impaired for the mak- 
ing of the best grade of butter. Every time it is closed tightly into the 
creamery can while warm, or the warm morning's milking is poured into 
the cold milk of the evening before, it means a loss in butter quality be- 
cause of "smothered" milk. Every exposure of the cans to the hot sun 
of summer while the milk is on the way to the creamery means a lessen- 
ing of that fine delicate taste that is to butter what the fine edge produced 
only by honing is to the axe or other sharp cutting tool. It is not in nature 
that the stream shall rise above its source — neither may it be that butter 
shall be better than the milk it is made from. 

Something can be done, it is true, in the creamery to overcome pre- 
vious neglect of the milk, through the cleaning process of centrifugal cream 
separation and through the use of heat to stop further deterioration, as 
cooking will check for a time the spoiling of food. But neither of these 
processes will restore a tenth part of that fine flavor the milk has lost through 



NECESSITY OF MAKING GOOD BUTTER. 145 

neglect of the simplest precautions against absorption of taints and the 
keeping of it at a properly low temperature. 

There can be no good butter if the farmer has not done his part to 
produce good milk, and if the buttermaker has not done his part to handle 
that milk in a skillful manner to concentrate its good qualities into the 
finished product. 

What is the farmer's part in the sale of good butter, now that he has 
done his part in its production? 

The sale of good butter would be a simple matter if there was not a 
counterfeit of butter which is cheaply made and which is sold by hundreds 
of so called "butter" dealers as and in place of pure butter. This thing of 
selling this counterfeit of butter — oleomargarine — is easily done by those 
who prefer the ten cents to fifteen cents a pound profit on each pound to 
their business honor, because in the great majority of cases the purchaser 
is not well qualified to discriminate between what is pure butter and what 
is the counterfeit, and so gives his full confidence to the dealer — who thinks 
little or nothing of so grossly abusing this confidence to serve his own base 
purpose. 

It is difficult, indeed, for the farmer, accustomed as he is to trading 
mostly with life time friends and neighbors, to realize how a dealer can so 
grossly abuse his customers' confidences and so guiltily take from them 
the value of a good article while giving to them a grossly cheap counter- 
feit which they would promptly refuse to buy did they but know how they 
were being cheated. To the honest minded person this is a thing quite 
inexplicable; and it only can be explained on the ground that substitution, 
of whatever nature, usually means the replacing a good article with an 
inferior one, and where the inferior one is difficult of detection — well, the 
morals of some will not stand against it; — and this is most painfully the 
ease with the sale of oleomargarine, — about nine-tenths of all that is pro- 
duced being sold to consumers as pure butter or used by them as pure butter 
at hotels and restaurants. 

The production of oleomargarine has in the past two years reached 
an amount equal to the amount of creamery butter made in both Iowa 
and Minnesota, or almost any two of the great butter producing states 
in the Union. If made and sold as oleomargarine, if offered to the butter 
buyer as a cheap substitute for butter, no man could or would object, 
for that would be a legitimate business — the buyer and user having the 
choice of "taking or leaving" it. But when oleomargarine is made a counter- 
feit of butter, and is given to buyers and users who ask for butter 
and think they are getting butter, paying therefor the price of good butter 
and not the price of a cheap substitute, then the industry is an illegit- 
imate, a fraudulent one, and the people, through their voice in the national 
government, have the right not simply to ask. — but to demand — that the 



146 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

making of oleomargarine yellow, as a counterfeit of pure butter, shall 
be stopped. 

What is the farmer's part in the sale of good butter? 

His part is to use his vote and personal influence in the legislation 
of this country as to forever make impossible the counterfeiting of pure 
butter made from pure milk either on the farm or in the creamery. 

Products made in a manner that will proclaim their identity everywhere 
are legitimate articles of commerce, but products that are made to coun- 
terfeit others have no right to exist, and oleomargarine colored a butter 
yellow is such a product. It is a counterfeit just as much as money not 
made in a government mint is counterfeit, and farmers have the right to 
demand its proper suppression — leaving the way open for it to be made 
a product distinctive in itself so all may easily know which they are offered 
— oleomargarine or pure butter — either at the store or wherever a meal 
may be served. 

The farmer, whether private dairyman or creamery patron, thus is 
the central figure in the production of good butter, and his influence ex- 
tends through to its final sale. He is but one of the many engaged in the 
work of making and selling butter, but his influence, his work, his per- 
sonality, dominates all, and the work is not well done or complete with- 
out his best efforts have helped to make it so. 

It is not an easy task — this thing of dairying. It is not an easy thing 
to handle a herd of cows to get the right amount of milk from each, and it 
is not an easy thing to care for this milk as it should be cared for — as 
it must be cared for — if good butter is to be made. But the farmer-dairy- 
man has not all the hard work to do, as the writer has fully realized by 
actual work on the farm, by work as a buttermaker in the creamery, 
and by active association with the commission dealer and the butter re- 
tailer. 

Each in his occupation must use brains, employ well his time, direct 
his business intelligently, and work with energy and persistence if he shall 
gain success. 

If the farmer shall do this same way, who is there to say that his will 
not be the greater share in so much of that material wealth, peace, pros- 
perity, and that homely happiness in life and contentment in occupation 
as those may expect who are earnestly associated in the making and market- 
ing of Good Butter? 

Milk. 

What a wonderful thing is milk! Born of the mother-love, it nour- 
ishes the young of all warm blooded creatures whose term of life would 
quickly end were it wanting. From the lowliest mammal to noble man, 
made in Godlike image, milk is the flesh builder, the nervepower, the very 
essence of life. It is the one product all indispensable, universal. The 
cow, man's queenly servant, sacred in history, ever needful, deserving of 



NECESSITY OF MAKING GOOD BUTTER. 147 

the most kindly regard of man for animal — because giver of that most in- 
tricate of life's mysteries, that greatest of life's necessities — milk! 

Symbol of purity — milk. Its whiteness the mirror of all that is good 
and pure and true, its composition the illustration of the complexity 
of life governed by One, Ruler of all destiny. Its universality the illus- 
tration of that God spirit who has made a world-wide brotherhood of man- 
kind and given man dominion of all animals, and of these none greater 
in her use to man than the cow. 

Comprising all the elements of life, as does no other food, no other 
food deserves man's attention as does milk. 

In its natural state it goes to the tables of the rich as of the poor. It- 
self the most perfect and wholesome drink, it combines to improve others; 
it is used as a relish with some foods; it is combined with other foods in 
cooking. As butter it serves a multitude of purposes none other product 
will do. The most delicate are better for its use- — the strongest grow in 
strength because of its power. No corner of the world where a dairy pro- 
duet has not penetrated — no nook in the vast universe where dairy pro- 
ducts as foods for man have not been appreciated. In the frozen north, 
the torrid equatorial clime, the rugged mountain regions, the sunburned 
deserts — in all climes, in all countries, the worth and need of milk and its 
products as foods has been acknowledged by man. 

Nor does the usefulness of milk end here. Milk is a most potent medi- 
cine. As an antidote for poisons its use is well recognized. Milk makes 
a most powerful poultice. Pure milk gives health and life to the consump- 
tive; it brings the glow of health to the invalid. In the mechanic arts milk 
is again indispensable. A glaze made of milk is used to coat the finest 
book paper. A most durable and fire-proof paint is made from milk. 
Sugar from milk has many medicinal uses. The very buttons on one's 
coat can be made from the casein of milk. Almost limitless in its uses, 
and constantly furnishing new surprises as advance is made by scientists 
in its study, is milk. 

To the true dairyman the worth of milk as a human food in its several 
forms will ever be a silent, resistless appeal to treat his cows kindly, keep 
them comfortable and contented, and especially to let no untidiness in 
the handling of milk rob it of its fresh purity and wholesomeness. 

The heart-throb of past ages, the animate life of the present, the de- 
pendence of the future — Milk. In its production and in the making from 
it those articles of food so necessary to the welfare of man, there is not 
possible to hold too high an ideal, or make unworthy use of one's best 
talents, or labor to a more noble purpose. 



"Let us have faith that right makes might; and 
in that faith let us dare to do our duty as ice 
understand it." — Abraham Lincoln. 



148 



VARIATION IN TESTS; COMPOSITION OF MILK AS 

OBSERVED AT THE MODEL DAIRY AT THE 

PAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION AT 

BUFFALO, N. Y. 



BY DE WITT GOODRICH, BUTTERMAKER AND DAIRY INSTRUCTOR ; OFFICIAL 
MILK TESTER AT PAN-AMERICAN MODEL DAIRY. 

Belvidere, III. 

As one branch of the Dairy and Live Stock . department of the Pan- 
American Exposition, a so-called "model dairy" was planned by Superin- 
tendent Converse to be installed and operated at an estimated cost of 
$6,000.00. 

The impression in some way gained pretty wide circulation, in the 
United States at least, that the model dairy at Buffalo was to be conducted 
on broad educational lines, demonstrating to the visiting public the most 
modern and approved methods of handling and feeding dairy cows as well 
as handling the product; in fact, that it was to be a show dairy more than 
a contest of the several breeds of cattle invited to participate. However, 
when it came time to make the final arrangements and rules for the feeding 
and crediting of products of the several breeds, the show dairy was given 
secondary consideration in the all-absorbing question of how to properly 
and fairly handle the feed and product of ten separate breeds of cows in a 
six months' contest. 

Considering the small sum set aside for constructing, equipping and 
maintaining such a dain , it goes without saying that a model dairy which 
would meet the approval of the advocate of certified milk dairies and ad- 
mirer of porcelain lined and nickle-plated dairy-rooms would have been 
an impossibility. If funds had been provided for such a demonstration 
alone, it would have been of infinitely less value to the thousands of prac- 
tical dairy farmers who had put before them for study every week (in some 
one of the several hundred papers publishing them) the weekly records of 
the fifty cows in the Pan-American dairy test. In addition to the practical 
results attained through the agricultural press, the dairy barn was every 
day thronged with curious and interested visitors studying the animals 
themselves in connection with their records, weekly renewed and hung 

149 



150 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

above them. New York City and Buffalo people who scarcely knew how 
milk is obtained saw cows milked, fed and groomed for the first time, and 
learned to distinguish Jerseys, Guernseys, Brown Swiss and the other breeds 
represented. 

The expense of conducting this test was as follows: Salaries, $7,321.25; 
feed, $3,177.77; shavings (for bedding), $772.85; ice, $338.69; chemical 
analysis, $226.00; supplies, etc., $182.17; total, $12,018.73. Receipts for 
products $8,175.64. Net expense to exposition, exclusive of building, 
$3,843.11. 

Ten breeds entered the test with five cows each as follows: Shorthorn, 
Holstein, Ayrshire, Jersey, French Canadian, Guernsey, Brown Swiss, Red- 
Polled, Polled-Jersey and Dutch Belted; the first five breeds named being 
furnished by Canada and the last five by the United States. 

The breeds were represented by A. W. Smith, G. W. demons, Robt. 
Robertson, Prof. Day, Dr. Couture, W. H. Caldwell, Mr. Inman, V. T. Hills, 
A. T. Mohr and J. Mclnnes, the representatives coming in same order as 
breeds named above. 

These gentlemen, together with an advisory committee, composed of 
Maj. Henry E. Alvord (Dairy Division U. S. Dept. Agl.), Hon. E. W. Hob- 
son, of Canada, and Dr. W. H. Jordan and J. H. Grisdall, representing Asso- 
ciation of American and Dominion Experiment Stations respectively, met 
and formulated the rules which governed the test. 

Four prizes were to be awarded to herds excelling in the four follow- 
ing points: 

1st. Greatest net profit on estimated butter at 25c. per lb., 85 lbs. 
butterfat in milk to represent 100 lbs. of butter (equal to 17^ per cent, 
overrun) . 

2nd. Greatest net profit on churned butter at 25c. per lb. 

3rd. Greatest net profit on total milk solids at 9c. per lb. 

4th. Greatest net profit on total milk solids at 9c. per lb. plus gain in 
live weight at 3c. per lb. 

After considering the average prices of feed throughout the United 
States and Canada for the last five years, the committee arrived at the 
following schedule of prices to be charged in the test: 

Clover hay, $7.00; ensilage, $2.00; green feed, $1.75; bran, $15.00; 
corn meal and gluten meal, $16.00; ground oats, $19.00; oil meal, cotton- 
seed meal and pea-meal, $25.00 per ton. 

Each herd of five cows was fed, milked and cared for by a man chosen 
and employed by the association representing the breed, but the exposition 
paid these men additional salaries and they were in a measure under 
control of the superintendent. 

Each herdsman (sometimes with advice or suggestions from owners of 
the cows) made daily requisitions for the ration for each of his five cows, 
choosing such feeds, within the above list, and in such quantity as he 



VARIATION IN TESTS OF MILK. 151 

deemed best, the feed for all being weighed and charged by careful and 
responsible men employed by the exposition. 

The milk from each cow was brought to the dairy room as soon as 
drawn and here weighed and recorded and two samples taken for testing. 
One taken with a milk-thief (a copper tube of about f-inch bore) was added 
to a composite jar provided for each cow, and the other, taken with a small 
dipper, was put in another set of pint jars for. testing with the lactometer. 

Each mess of milk was poured, after weighing, into a common shot- 
gun or setting can and at once sampled; the milk-thief thus taking a pro- 
portional amount of each mess to be added to the composite sample. 

The composite samples, provided with a little corrosive sublimate, were 
tested with the Babcock test each week on the same day, and from these 
tests and total milk yield for the week, the pounds of butter fat and value 
of same for each cow was computed and value of feed consumed by each 
deducted. Thus the profit on butterfat or "estimated butter" for each 
cow and herd was determined for each week separately. 

The samples taken for lactometer testing were tested daily and the 
readings for the week for each cow averaged. To the average lactometer 
reading and composite Babcock test of each cow a formula was applied 
which gave the per cent, of total solids in her milk for the week. Thus the 
data for the third award (profit on total solids) was supplied from week to 
week and a separate record made for each animal in total solids as well as 
in butterfat. 

Total solids include all constituents of the milk excepting water and 
represent its full food value. In average milk the solids are divided about 
as follows: Fat 3.5, casein and albumen 3.4, milk sugar 5.0 and ash .7 per 
cent., total. 12.6 per cent. 

The committee who fixed the price of 9c. per lb. for total solids, evi- 
dently assumed each element of solids to be of equal nutritive value for 
human food and based their calculation on the average price and approx- 
imate composition of milk sold in New York City. 

The award of greatest profit on "churned butter" was a sort of con- 
ciliatory measure, probably intended to satisfy that faction of the Jersey 
breeders who contend that no records excepting those of actually churned 
butter signify anything. 

Owing to the impracticability of churning all the milk from each of 
the ten breeds separately, the rules were so modified as to provide for the 
separating and crmrning of one day's milk from e'ach breed each week. 
The yield of butter per 100 pounds for the single day's milk churned to be 
applied to the total yield of milk for the week and this estimate called 
"churned butter." 

The test of a herd's milk on the day it was churned frequently varied 
.2 to .3 per cent, from the average per cent, of fat in the herds' milk for the 
entire week, so that with perfect work in separating and churning, the 



152 THE CREAMERY PATRONl's HANDBOOK. 

so-called churned butter for the week would fall short or over-run the esti- 
mated butter, which here represented the true butter producing value of 
the herd. 

With this way of calculating instead of churning churned butter there 
is but little satisfaction in trying to compare the yield of churned butter 
with butterfat; but considering that in a series of twenty-six weeks and as 
many churnings of each breed, the law of averages should pretty nearly 
balance up the errors of such a method, when we find that for the whole 
period the churned butter has fallen short of the estimated butter (in ev ry 
breed but one) from 19 to 71 lbs., or from 1.3 to 4.7 per cent., the inference 
is that 85 lbs. of fat will not make 100 lbs. of butter under these conditions. 

Taking the whole amount of churned butter, arrived at as above de- 
scribed, we find that it took very close to 87 lbs. of fat in milk to make 100 
lbs. of butter, or that it gave a trifle over 15 per cent, .over-run. 

The butter was made by an expert dairy buttermaker from New York 
State, and I think worked a little dryer than most western creameries 
work it. 

The weighing and testing of all milk which formed the basis of produc- 
tion for each cow and herd, was done by two experienced and responsible 
men. One from Canada, Mr. James Stonehouse, Agricultural College 
Guelph, Ont., and the other from the United States (the writer). 

The Composite method of Testing. 

As a check on any possible tampering with composite samples, and in 
order to obtain further data on the question of composite vs. daily test, 
these men in charge of the testing, as opportunity afforded, tested samples 
of each milking for an entire week corresponding with the composite test 
week. 

One breed was run at a time in this way, but in all, seven breeds were 
tested, through a period covering all kinds of weather, and together furnish 
a vast amount of evidence in favor of the composite method of testing 
individual cows and herds. In addition to this, it serves to demonstrate 
how widely many cows milk will vary in richness from one milking and one 
day to another. It served to demonstrate in what way sexual heat, sick- 
ness, excessively hot weather and other temporary disturbances affect the 
test. 

In no instance did the composite test vary more than .1 per cent, from 
the per cent, fat as determined from the pounds of fat yielded at each milk- 
ing separately. Where the cows were milked three times a day, as most of 
them were throughout the test, 21 separate samples were tested and the fat 
figured out to compare with the composite test for the week. 

A comparison of average per cent, of fat in the week's milk of the herds 
of five cows, with the test of the same herd for one full day of the same week, 
shows that it is often misleading to take a single day's sample as an indica- 
cation of the test of the herd for a week. See following examples taken 



VARIATION IN TESTS OF MILK. 



153 



from Pan-American records. For the week ending October 1st. the per 
cent, of fat in the French-Canadian herd was 4.16 but the mixed milk of 
the herd tested 5. 1 for one day of the same week. 

In like manner the difference in the Polled-Jersey herd for the week 
ending June 11 was .48 per cent, and for another week .41 per cent. In 
June the Ayrshires had a difference in one week of .45 per cent, and in Sep- 
tember and October .37 and .39 per cent. Other breeds varied about the 
same. 

I include herewith some tables of the separate milkings and tests of 
same in comparison with composite tests for same period. 

The Brown Swiss and Dutch Belted cows which were tested in like 
manner showed less variation than the breeds given here in detail. 

A summary only of the Holstein tests for one week is given first : 



HOLSTEIN 



AVERAGE. 



RANGE IN PER 
CENT. FAT. 

Cow No. 1 2.6— 3.6 

" 2 2.2—4.0 

" 3 2.6—3.2 

"• 4 2.1—3.8 

" 5 2.9—4.5 

TESTS OF EACH MILKING FOR THE JERSEY COWS FOR ONE 
WITH COMPOSITE FOR SAME PERIOD. 



01 

026 

95 

26 

31 



COMPO- 
SITE TEST. 

3.10 
3.10 
3.05 
3 . 25 
3.30 



TOTAL DIF- 
FERENCE IN 
BUTTERFAT 
FOR 7 DAYS. 
.266 
.211 

. 250 
.033 
.044 



WEEK COMPARED 



Date. 
Aug. 



GIPSY, OF SPRUCE GROVE. 



-noon 

-night 9.6 

-morning 10.4 



Lbs. 

milk. Test. 
9.1 5.2 



— noon. . . 
— night. . . 
9 — morning. 
— noon. . . . 
— night. . . 



10.4 

9.1 

10.8 

10. 

9. 

10 — morning 11.2 

— noon 9.4 

—night 8.6 

1 1 — morning 9.6 

— noon 9.9 

—night. 8.2 

12 — morning 10.3 

— noon 10.3 

—night 8.4 

13 — morning 10.8 

— noon 9 . 

— night 8.1 

14 — morning 10.7 



6 
3 

7 
6 
3 
6 
5.9 
5.2 
4.1 
4.S 
3.9 
3.9 



Lbs. 

fat. 
.4732 
. 4896 
.4264 
.5304 
.4368 
.4104 
.4800 
. 3600 
.4480 
.4324 
.3698 
. 3552 
.5544 
.4346 
.3708 
.6077 
. 4368 
.4428 
.4320 
.3159 
.4173 



Totals 202.9 9.2245 

Composite test and fat from same 4 . 5 — 9 . 1305 

Test computed from daily weight and tests 4.541 



154 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



PRIMROSE. 



Date. 
Aug. 



Lbs. 

milk. Test. 



7 — noon 8.1 

— night 7.3 

8 — morning 9.9 

— noon 8.8 

— night 7.3 

9 — morning 10.1 



11) 



noon . . . 
night . . . 
morning 

— noon . . . 

— night . . . 
11 — morning 

— noon . . . 

■ — night . . . 
12 — morning 

— noon . . . 

— night . . . 
13 — morning 

— noon . . . 

— night . . . 
14 — morning 



(3 
10 

7 
7 
9 
4 
' 7 
12 



6.9 

6. 

5.8 

6.5 

5.4 

5.3 

6.5 

5. 

5.4 

7. 

6.3 

5.6 

6.2 

4.6 

6.5 

6.9 

6.4 



Lbs : 

fat. 
. 5589 
.4380 
.5742 
.5720 
.3942 
. 5353 
.5460 
.3350 
.5400 
.5810 
.5103 
.4928 
.4960 
.2760 
.7020 
.5106 
.4864 
.5580 
.1968 
. 2800 
.9102 



Totals 174 

Test computed from daily weight and tests 

Composite test and fat from same 



10.4937 
6.061 ' 
6.1—10.656 



QUEEN MAY. 



Lbs. 
milk. Test. 



Aug. 



7 — noon 9.4 

— night 8.7 

8 — morning 10 .9 



— noon . . . 
— night . . . 
9 — morning 
— noon . . . 
— night . . . 



9 

8 

11 



6. 

4.7 

4.5 

5.6 

4.7 



9.3 

10 — morning 10.5 

— noon 9 . 

— night 9.4 

1 1 — morning 11.1 

— noon 9 . 

— night 9.1 

12 — morning 11.3 

— noon 9.6 

—night 8.6 

13 — morning 10.8 

— noon 9.3 

—night 9 . 

14 — morning 10.9 



2 
7 
8 
3 
6 
8 
.") 
4 
2 
4.6 
5.4 
4.8 
4.5 
5.3 
4.8 
4.4 



Totals 203 . 7 

Test computed from daily weight and tests 4 . 822 

Composite test and fat from same 4 . 85 - 



Lbs. 

fat. 
.5640 
.4089 
.4905 
.5320 
.3948 
.4662 
.4136 
.4464 
.4515 
.4140 
.4512 
.4995 
.4860 
.4732 
.5198 
.5184 
.4128 
. 4860 
. 4929 
.4320 
.4796 

9.8333 
-9.8794 



VARIATION IN TESTS OF MILK. 



155 



Date. 



Lbs. Lbs. 

milk. Test. fat. 



^.ug. 7 — noon ' . 


10.6 


5.6 
4.9 
3.7 
5.6 
5.2 
2.5 
4.7 
3.8 
2.9 
3.5 
3.5 
2.9 
5.9 
5.2 
3.7 
4.6 
2.8 
3.8 
7.5 
4.8 
3. 


.5936 


— night 


10. 


. 4900 


8 — morning 

— noon 


11.4 

10. 


.4218 
.5600 


— night 


10.3 


.5356 


9 — morning 


8. 


.2000 


— noon 


9.5 


. 4465 


— night 


8.4 


.3192 


" 10 — morning 

— noon 


11.4 

8.9 


.3306 
.3115 


— night 


9.1 


.3185 


11 — morning 


10.9 


.3161 


— noon 


10.6 


.6254 


— night 


8.7 


.4524 


" 12 — morning 


11.4 


.4218 


— noon 


9.7 


.4462 


— night 


2.6 


.0728 


— noon 


16.6 

! 10.7 


.6308 
.8025 


— night 


9.3 


.4464 


" 14 — mornine 


10.9 


. 3270 



Totals 209.0 9.0687 

Test computed from daily weight and tests 4 .32 

Composite test and fat from same 



Aug. 



MOSSY, OF H. 



4.4—9.196 

Lbs. Lbs. 

milk. Test. fat. 



7 — noon 10.1 

— night 9.4 

8 — morning 11.7 

— noon 10.2 

— night 9.9 



9 — morning 

— noon . . . 

— night . . . 
10 — morning 

— noon . . . 

— night . . . 



10.9 
11.1 
9.1 
10.8 
10.6 
8.6 

1 1 — morning 10.5 

— noon 9.2 

—night 9.4 

12 — morning 10 . 2 

— noon 9.4 

—night 8.7 

13 — morning 11.1 

— noon 10.6 

—night 9.4 

14 — morning 10.6 

Totals 211.5 

Test computed from daily weight and tests 



5.2 
4.2 
3.8 
4.9 
5. 



6 

1 
1 
4 
4.2 
2.8 
4.2 
5. 
3.4 
5.2 
4.1 
4.1 
7.3 
4.8 
3.8 



.5252 
.3948 
.4446 
.4998 
.4950 
.2834 
.5550 
.3731 
.3348 
.5724 
.3612 
.2940 
.3864 
.4700 
.3468 
.4888 
.3567 
.4551 
.7738 
.4512 
.4028 



Composite test and fat from same 



9.2649 
38 
4.4—9.306 



156 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



OF EACH MILKING OF AYRSHIRE COWS COMPARED WITH COMPOSITE 
METHOD FOR SAME PERIOD. 



Lbs. 

milk. 
9.2 
9.9 



Date. kirstv Wallace. 

July 31 — noon 

— night 

Aug. 1 — morning 12.9 

— noon 10.6 

— night 10. 

2 — morning 12.4 

— noon 11.1 

—night 10.7 

3 — morning 14 . 

— noon 11.1 

—night 10.7 

4 — morning 14 



11. 

10. 
13. 
12. 
11 
13. 
11. 
10.3 
7 — morning 13.6 



— noon . . . 

— night . . . 
5 — morning 

— noon . . . 

— night . . . 
6 — morning 

— noon . . . 

— night . . . 



Test 
3.9 



Lbs. 
fat. 
.3588 
.3465 
.4644 
.4240 
.3900 
. 4588 
.4440 
. 4066 
. 5040 
.4884 
.3959 
.4760 
.4440 
. 4066 
.4422 
.5084 
.4440 
.5054 
. 4290 
.3296 
.4352 



Totals 243 . 5 

Test computed from daily weight and tests 3 

Composite test and fat from same 3 



July 

Aug. 



31 — noon . . . 

— night . . . 
1 — morning , 

— noon . . . 

— night . . . 
2 — morning . 

— noon . . . 

— night . . . 
3 — morning 

— noon . . . 

— night . . . 
4 — morning 

— noon . . . 

— night . . . 
5 — morning 

— noon . . . 

— night . . . 
6 — morning 

— noon . . . 
-night 



lady flora. 



Lbs. 

milk. Test. 

8.6 3.7 



9.1018 
73 

7 —9.0095 
Lbs. 



8.4 
9.6 
7.3 
8.1 

10.9 
8.9 
9.6 

12.5 



9.7 
102 
13. 
10. 
10.6 
12.8 
10.7 
11.1 
13.4 
10.7 
10.6 



7 — morning 15 . 



3.6 
3.4 
4.3 
3.6 
3.3 
3.4 
3.4 
3.5 
37 



3.2 
2.9 
3.4 



Totals. ..' 221.7 

Test computed from daily weight and tests 3.4 

Composite test and fat from same 3.4- 



fat. 
.3182 
.3024 
.3264 
.3139 
.2916 
.3597 
.3026 
. 3264 
.4375 
.3589 
.3162 
.4160 
. 3500 
.3392 
. 4352 
.3531 
. 3663 
.4690 
.3424 
.3074 
.5100 

7.5424 

-7 . 537 



Variation in tests of milk. 



157 



betsy 1st. Lbs. Lbs. 

Date. milk. Test. fat. 

July 31— noon 10.2 4.4 .4488 

—night 11. 3.6 . 3960 

Aug. 1 — morning 13.7 3.4 .4658 

— noon 11.1 3.7 .4107 

—night...... 11.3 3.2 .3616 

2— morning 14.8 3.4 .5032 

— noon 11. 3.8 .4180 

—night 11.7 3.6 .4212 

3— morning ... . " 14.9 3.5 .5215 

—noon 10.7 4. .4280 

—night 11.1 4. .4440 

4— morning 13.7 3. .4110 

— noon..... 10.6 3.7 .3922 

—night 11.8 4. . 4720 

" " 5— morning 13.9 3.4 .4726 

—noon 10.7 3.6 .3852 

—night 11.7 3.8 .4446 

6— morning .. , 14.2 3.6 .5112- 

— noon 11.5 4. . 4600 

—night.... 11. 3.2 .3520 

7— morning 15.5 3.8 .5890 

Totals 256 . 1 9 . 3086 

Test computed from daily weight and tests 3 . 63 

Composite test and fat from same 3 . 65 — 9 . 34 

alice 2nd. Lbs. Lbs. 
milk. Test. fat. 

July 31— noon 8.3 5.1 .4233 

—night 8.5 4.6 .3910 

Aug. 1 — morning 10.4 3.6 . 3744 

—noon 9.8 4.8 .4704 

—night 8.7 4. . 3480 

2— morning 11.4 3.6 .4104 

—noon 10.3 5.1 .5253 

—night 9.3 4.2 . 3906 

3— morning 12.2 3.8 .4636 

— noon 9.4 4.5 .4230 

—night 9.3 4.4 . 4092 

4— morning 11.8 3.5 .4130- 

—noon 9.8 4.5 .4410 

—night 9.5 4.3 .4085 

5— morning 11.7 3.7 .4329 

—noon. 9.9 3.8 .3762 

—night 9.9 3.5 .3465 

6— morning 13.1 3.9 .5109 

— noon 10.8 4.6 .4968 

—night 9.7 3.9 .3783 

" 7— morning 13. 3.5 .4550 

Totals 216.8 8.8883 

Test computed from daily weight and tests 4.1 

Composite test and fat from same 4 . 05 — 8 . 78 



158 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



Lbs. Lbs. 

Date. pearl of woodside. milk. Test. fat. 

July 31— noon 9.3 5.1 .4743 

—night 9.5 4. . 3800 

Aug. 1 — morning * 12.1 3.4 .4114 

—noon 10.5 4.6 . 4830 

—night 10.3 3.8 .3914 

2— morning 13.4 3.3 .4422 

—noon 10.8 4.3 .4644 

—night 11.8 4.3 .5074 

3— morning 13.5 3.3 . 4455 

—noon 11. 4.5 .4950 

—night 10.2 3.1 .3162 

4— morning 14.6 3.7 . 5402 

—noon ' 10.8 4.6 . 4968 

—night 10.4 3.2 .3328 

5— morning 14.1 3.4 .4794 

—noon 11.5 4.9 .5635 

—night 10.8 3.9 .4212 

6— morning 13.2 3.1 .4092 

—noon 10.9 3.8 .4142 

—night 11. 3.6 .3960 

7— morning 14.2 3.4 .4828 

Totals 243 . 9 9 . 3469 

Test computed. from daily weight and tests 3.83 

Composite test and fat from same . 3 . 8 — 9 . 268 

SHORTHORN 14tll PRINCESS OF THULE. 



Lbs. Lbs. 

milk. Test. fat. 

July 17— Three milkings 29 . 1 4.01. 1640 

18— noon 8.7 4.7 . 4089 

—night 8.0 3.8 .3040 

19— morning 11.0 3.8 .4180 

—noon 9.1 4.8 . 4368 

—night 8.0 3.5 . 2800 

20— morning 9.9 3.1 . 3069 

—noon 10.3 4.2 . 4326 

—night 8.9 4.3 . 3827 

21— morning 10.8 3.8 .4104 

—noon 10.7 5.0 .5350 

—night 9.4 4.6 . 4324 

22— morning ,. 10.5 3.4 .3570 

—noon 10.3 4.3 .4429 

— night 9.4 4.5 .4230 

23— morning 10.8 3.9 .4212 

—noon 9.3 3.9 .3627 

—night 8.5 2.7 .2295 

24— morning 12.0 3.8 . 4560 

Totals 204.7 8.2040 

Composite test 4.1 

Computed from daily test 4 • 008 



VARIATION IN TESTS OF MILK. 



159 



SHORTHORN DAISY D. 

Lbs. Lbs- 

Date. milk. Test. fat. 

July 17 — Three milkings, beginning noon 25.7 3.5 .S995 

18— noon 8.4 3.5 . 2940 

—night 9.0 3.3 .2970 

19— morning 12.2 3.8 .4636 

—noon 8.4 2.9 . 2436 

—night 10.5 3.2 . 3360 

20— morning 12.7 3.8 . 4S26 

—noon 10.4 4.0 .4160 

—night 9.4 3.0 . 2820 

21— morning 9.9 4.1 .4059 

—noon *2 . 5.2 .1040 

—night 1.7 4.2 .0714 

22— morning 5.8 6.7 . 3886 

—noon 2.8 5.4 .1512 

—night 3.9 4.4 .1716 

23— morning 6.7 5.0 . 3350 

—noon 5.7 4.3 . 2451 

—night 5.3 4.0 .2120 

24— morning 9.6 4.0 . 3840 

Totals 160 . 1 6 . 1831 

Composite Tests 3.8 

Computed 3 . 86 

*Cow was sick from noon of 21st to noon of 23rd. 



SHORTHORN MISS MOLLY. 

Lbs. 

milk. 

July 17-18 — Three milkings 33 . 3 

18 — noon 10.2 

— night ' 8.4 

19 — morning 13.6 

— noon 10.3 

—night 9.4 

" 20 — morning 12.9 

— noon 10.0 

—night 10.1 

21 — morning 13.0 

— noon 10.9 

—night 11.0 

22 — morning 13.8 

— noon 10.8 

—night 10.6 

23 — morning 14.4 

— noon 11.2 

—night 12.0 

24 — morning 14.6 

Totals 240 . 5 

Composite Test 

Computed from daily test 





Lbs. 


Test. 


fat. 


3.7 1 


.2321 


4.5 


.4590 


3.1 


.2604 


3.9 


.5304 


4.6 


.4738 


3.4 


.3196 


3.5 


.4515 


3.6 


.3600 


3.6 


.3636 


3.7 


.4810 


3.6 


.3924 


3.6 


.3960 


4.2 


.5796 


3.8 


.4104" 


3.2 


.3392 


4.1 


. 590-1 


4.1 


.4592 


3.7 


.4440 


4.1 


.5986 


9 


.1412 


3.8 




3.8 





160 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



SHORTHORN QUEEN BESS. 



Date. 



Lbs. 

milk 



July 17-18 — Three milkings 33 . 1 

18 — noon 10.3 

—night 10.5 

19 — morning 12.0 

— noon 10.9 

—night 9.6 

20 — morning 11.4 

— noon 10.6 

—night 10.9 

21 — morning 9.3 

— noon 4.9 

—night 6.6 

22 — morning 8.6 

— noon , 9.1 

—night 11.2 

23 — morning 13.4 

— noon 10.7 

— night 11.7 

24 — mornin g 13.5 



Test. 

3.8 

4.5 

3.9 

3.1 

4.4 

3.2 

3.6 

3.8 

4.0 

3.4 



3.7 
3.6 
4.0 

3.8 
4.2 



Totals 21S.3 

Composite Test 3.7 

Computed from daily tests 3.8 



Lbs. 
fat. 
1-2578 
.4635 
.4095 
.3720 
.4796 
.3072 
.4104 
.4028 
.4300 
.3162 
.2107 
.3432 
.2752 
.3094 
.4144 
.4824 
.4280 
.4446 
.5670 

8 . 3299 



SHORTHORN ROSE 3RD. 



Lbs- 
milk. 
30.9 
10.7 

9.1 
10.6 
10.8 

8.6 
11.5 
10.5 



July 17-18— Three milkings 

18 — noon 

— night 

19 — morning 

— noon 

— night 

20 — morning 

— noon 

— night 10.6 

21 — morning 11.4 

— noon 9.8 

—night t 10.8 

22 — morning 12.9 

— noon 11.2 

—night 11.2 

23 — morning 12.8 

— noon 11.0 

—night 11.4 

24 — morning 14.0 

Totals 229 . 8 

Composite Tests 

Computed from daily tests 



Lbs. 
Test. fat. 
3.5 10815 

5564 



5.2 
3.5 
3.0 
4.9 



3.6 
3.59 



.3185 
.3180 
.5292 
.2666 
.3680 
.4410 
.4240 
. 3534 
.3724 
.3564 
.4386 
.4256 
.4256 
.3968 
.4180 
.3192 
.4340 

8.2432 



VARIATION IN TESTS OF MILK. 



161 



GUERNSEY. 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Date. mary Marshall. milk. Test. fat. 

Aug. 14— noon 8.8 6.1 . 5368 

—night 8.4 5.4 .4536 

15— morning 10 .9 5 . . 5450 

—noon 8.2 6.1 .5002 

—night 8.2 5.8 .4756 

16 — morning 11. 5.4 . 5940 

—noon 7.8 5.7 -4446 

—night 8.0 5.4 .4320 

17— morning 10.5 5.2 .5460 

—noon.. 8.5 6.0 .5100 

—night 8.1 5.5 .4455 

18— morning 10.6 5.4 .5724 

—noon 8.5 6.3 . 5355 

—night 7.6 5.4 .4104 

19— morning 10.8 4.9 .5292 

—noon 7.7 5.0 .3850 

—night 9.3 5.9 .5487 

20— morning 10.4 5.1 . 5304 

—noon : 8.5 5.7 .4845 

—night 8.7 5.4 .4698 

21— morning 10.4 5.5 . 5720 

Totals 190.9 10.5212 

Per cent, fat 5.51 

Composite test and resulting fat 5 . 4 — 10 . 3086 

Lbs. Lbs. 

medora ferx. milk. Test. fat. 

Aug. 14— noon 5.7 3. . 1710 

—night 7.1 4.2 . 2982 

15— morning 10 .2 4.7 . 4794 

—noon 6.4 5.4 . 3456 

—night .'... 5.4 4.8 .2592 

16— morning 9.4 5.6 . 5264 

—noon.. 2.3 3.5 .0805 

—night 7.9 3. .2370 

17— morning 9.3 5.0 . 4650 

—noon . 5 . 4.8 . 2400 

—night 8.5 4.6 .3910 

18— morning 7.4 3.8 .2812 

—noon 4.7 3.6 .1692 

—night 7.3 4.5 .3285 

19— morning 9.1 5.9 .5369 

—noon 2.3 3.6 .0828 

—night 8.8 4.0 . 3520 

20— morning 9. 5.2 . 4680 

— noon no milk. 

—night 10.3 5.3 .5459 

21— morning 10.7 4.2 .4494 

Totals 146 . 8 6 . 7072 

Per cent, fat 4 .57 

Composite test and resulting fat 4.6 — 6.7528 




t. c = a S 

DOj; .2 

~ ■£> 3- . 

a S-e£:2 

£ c " S <« ^ 
Q a|8o» 

5 -^;^» 
« ._. a » a 

5 £=s2 a £ 

£ mz: ,K a 
H -i — ■*> ■ a> 

7 H £=« =0 t. 
&- 3 s G ~ a> 

H »5s?£ 



> 


pound 
Mich 
ths in t 
to Apr 
as thet 
e test). 




^ a 3 en 


c 


- £ O = „ - 


>r 






as 


^o^2 




H >. ® g •- s 








o> z w - *■ 
aS ts ,H a » 




- & fe J<~ 

•,- « — o> a. ■£ 

«*9>.a° 

— 1*2* 


fcH 






PS 






3 


fa*§S£ 


1 


S -3 o> t» 


1 


c.-H§ 5-2 
- 1 — -OS'S 


< 


1" oS 2 S g 








S^aS^o 


3 « :«i«a 


< 


gt: = ss» 



^ x: ^ o - — o 



a> 



162 



VARIATION IN TESTS OF MILK. 



163 



PROCRIS OF PAXTANG. Lbs. Lbs. 

Date. milk. Test. fat. 

Aug. 14— noon 12.2 6.6 .8052 

—night 9.4 4.1 .3854 

15— morning 11.8 3.8 .4484 

—noon 9.7 5.6 .5432 

—night 9.9 3.8 .3762 

16— morning 11.7 4.8 .5616 

—noon 9. 5.7 .5130 

—night 7.1 2.8 .1988 

17— morning 12.9 4. .5160 

—noon 9.6 6.9 . 6624 

—night 7.6 5.8 .4408 

18— morning 11.6 4. .4640 

—noon 9.8 5.2 .5096 

—night 8.8 4.3 .3784 

19— morning 12. 4.3 .5160 

—noon 9.6 6. .5760 

—night 8.6 4.6 .3956 

20— morning 12.3 5.1 .6273 

—noon 8.8 5.2 . 4576 

—night 8.5 4.8 .4080 

21— morning 10.4 4.8 .4992 

Totals 211.3 10.2827 

Per cent, fat 4.87 

Composite test and resulting fat 4.9 — 10.3537 

vega. Lbs. Lbs. 

milk. Test. fat 

Aug. 14— noon 7.3 4.3 .3139 

—night 7.3 3.7 .2701 

15— morning "... 10.2 4.4 .4488 

—noon 7.9 5.1 .4029 

—night 6.2 4. .2480 

16— morning 11. 5.2 . 5720 

— noon 7.6 6. . 4560 

—night : 6.6 4.7 .3102 

17— morning 10.1 5 . . 5050 

—noon 6.8 4.4 .2992 

—night 7. 4.2 .2940 

18— morning 10.2 5.2 .5304 

—noon 6.6 4.6 . 3J36 

—night '. 6.9 3.5 .2415 

19— morning 9.9 4.6 . 4554 

—noon 7. 5. .3500 

—night 7. 4.2 .2940 

20— morning 9.3 4.8 . 4464 

-noon . . l 6.8 4.1 .2788 

—night 7.6 4.1 .3116 

21— morning 10.3 4.8 .4944 

Total 169 . 6 7 . 8262 

Per cent fat 4.61 

Composite test and resulting fat 4.6 — 7.8016 



Lbs. 




Lbs. 


milk. 


Test. 


fat. 


10.8 


4.9 


.5292 


9. 


3.9 


.3510 


12.1 


4.2 


.5082 


9.5 


5.1 


.4S45 


9.1 


4.1 


.3731 


11.6 


4.8 


. 5568 


9.9 


5.0 


.4050 


7.5 


3.4 


.2550 


14.1 


5.3 


.7473 


9.5 


4.8 


.4560 


9.2 


4. 


.3680 


12.2 


3.8 


.4636 


9.9 


4.6 


. 4554 


9.3 


4. 


.3720 


12.7 


3.8 


.4826 


9.9 


4.5 


.4455 


9.5 


4. 


.3800 


12.7 


3.9 


.4953 


9.4 


4.2 


. 3948 


10.2 


4.2 


.4284 


11.9 


4.3 


.5117 



164 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

CASSIOPIA. 

Date. 

Aug. 14 — noon 

— night 

15 — morning 12 

— noon 

— night 

16 — morning 

— noon 

— night 

17 — morning 

— noon 

— night 

18 — morning 

— noon 

— night 

19 — morning 

— noon 

—night 

20 — morning : . 

— noon 

— night 

21 — morning 11.9 

Total 220 . 9 . 5534 

Per cent fat 4 . 34 

Composite test and resulting fat 4.35 — 9.57 

Increase in richness with advance of lactation period. 

For the six months' test every one of the fifty cows made a gain in 
richness of milk incident to the advance of lactation period. By aver- 
aging the four weekly composite tests for each cow for the first and last 
month we have a fair basis for determining this gain without having to con- 
tend with the fluctuations from week to week caused by things seen and 
unseen. 

Comparing these averages for the months of May and October, we find 
that every cow gained, from the Guernsey, Cassiopia, with a gain of only .1%, 
to Queen, the Polled Jersey, with a gain of 2.019b- The average gain for 
the five cows of the different breeds was as follows: French Canadian 1.07, 
Jerseys 1.05, Polled Jerseys .90, Shorthorn .87, Guernseys .S5, Brown Swiss 
.7, Red Polled .65, Ayrshire .57, Holstein .48, Dutch Belted .39; the case of 
Cassiopia was an exceptional one. Her average test for May was 4.34, June 
3.99, July 4.12, August 4.36, September 4.71 and October 4.44, the gain 
being steady from June to October, but low for October. 

Of the fifty cows, twenty-eight tested higher each month of the six 
than for the preceding month ; eleven cows spoiled their progression by aver- 
aging lower for some one month than for a preceding month. Of these 
eleven, six dropped off during July, two during June and one each for 
August, September and October. 

Six of the fifty cows were off an average test for two months of the six, 
and the remaining five cows were high for just one month out of the six 



VARIATION IN TESTS OF MILK. 165 

(so as to spoil the progression) or else were mixed too badly to show any 
attempt at a progression. 

As most of the drops for a month of two came in the months which 
were excessively hot and the cows known to be very uncomfortable from 
heat, it is reasonable to attribute most of these drops to this cause. 

Considering that, with a few exceptions, all the cows in the test had 
calved within two months of the opening, which would bring them six to 
eight months in lactation at the close, a natural conclusion from the data 
here given would be that: with cows calving in spring and stabled through 
summer, the per cent, of fat increases as the period of lactation advances. 

Relation of test to profitable butter production. 

One of the most valuable things to be learned from this test is the very 
wide difference in the performance of individuals of the same breed. If five 
individuals of each of these breeds, gotten together in most cases after con- 
siderable search and pretty careful selection among the available animals 
by men supposed to be good judges, show such a great range in earning 
capacity as we find here, what must be the case in the herds of even our 
most intelligent farmers who have been too busy or too indifferent to apply 
the test and scales to the individuals of their herds. 

The following tabulation gives the best and poorest cow, from the 
standpoint of profit on butterfat, in each breed, with the .number of position, 
average fat test, cost of feed, and net profit: 

Breed. Cow. No. 

Guernsey Mary Marshall 1 

Medora Fern 43 

Jersey Primrose 4 

Rexina 29 

Ayrshire Betsy 1st 8 

Lady Flora 28 

Holstein Beauty 6 

Meg.,.,., 33 

Red Polled Mayflower 2 

Tryste 40 

Brown Swiss .... Belle T 19 

Nicola 42 

French-Canadian Denise 21 

La Bouchette 47 

Shorthorn Miss Molly 15 

Daisy D 44 

Polled Jersey .... Queen 16 

Phyllis 37 

(Justina left out) Stripper. 

Dutch Belted . . . Belle of W 31 

Alberta 50 

It is interesting to notice that in ever} 7 instance the most profitable cow 
tested high (for her breed) and the least profitable one low. Is not this 
significant ? In several breeds the richness of milk in fat for the five cows 





Cost 




Test. 


feed. 


Profit. 


5.36 


$29.16 


$59 . 40 


4.36 


24.36 


29.36 


5.64 


26.81 


50.25 


3.98 


25.48 


38.52 


3.59 


28.57 


46.07 


3.4 


27.68 


38.70 


3.42 


32.65 


49.35 


3.25 


34.11 


36.60 


4.45 


28.69 


52.10 


3.68 


27.15 


31.59 


4.09 


28.38 


41.23 


3.25 


29.18 


30.35 


4.03 


23.52 


40.64 


3.67 


18.65 


22.94 


3.71 


32.36 


43.01 


3.43 


32.38 


28.80 


5.63 


23.60 


42.89 


4.38 


23.83 


33.20 


oper. 
4.15 


26.93 


38.02 


3.09 


24.11 


11.49 



166 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HAMdBOOK. 

is graded just in order to their position in point of profit. Notice the 
Jersevs in the order of their profit from highest to lowest. The tests run: 
5.64; 4.74; 4.4; 4.27; 3.98. The Brown Swiss: 4.09; 3.8; 3.61; 3.45; 3.25. 
In nearly all the breeds this same uniform progression in richness corres- 
ponding with profit holds good, with slight irregularities in some. 

Results of test. 

The awards in the test were made as follows: For greatest net profit 

on estimated butter, to the Guernseys by $4.66. For greatest net profit on 
churned butter, to the Guernseys by $5.86. ' For greatest profit on total 
milk-solids, to the Holsteins by $26.44. For greatest profit on total milk- 
solids and gain in live weight, to the Holsteins by $31.63. 

estimated 
butter fat. butter. 

Lbs. Per 

milk. cent. Lbs. Lbs. Value. 

Guernseys 27127.6 4.6 1248.1 1468 .3 $367 .07 

Jersey 26987.1 4.58 1234.9 1452.8 363.20 

Ayrshire 32998.2 3.6 1219.4 1434.6 358.65 

Holstein 39260.2 3.25 1275.8 1501.0 375.25 

Red Polled 28694.9 3.98 1141.8 1343.3 335.83 

Brown Swiss 30892.6 3.63 1123.1 1321.3 330.34 

French Canadian 24664.7 3.99 984.1 1157.7 289.44 

Shorthorn 31885.6 3.57 1138.8 1339.6 334.96 

Polled Jersey 20328.8 4.66 948.3 1115.6 278.91 

Dutch Belted 24893.5 3.4 847.5 997.0 249.26 

ESTIMATED 

BUTTER. TOTAL SOLIDS. 

(II.) Cost of Net Per 

Feed. Profit cent. Lbs. Value. Profit 
on butter. 

Guernseys $136.99 $230.08 13.9 3775.0 $339.75 $202.76 

Jersey 137.78 225.42 13.9 3770.0 339.30 201.52 

Ayrshire 140.98 217.69 12.6 4185.3 376.68 235.70 

Holstein 164.69 210.56 12.0 4742.6 426.83 262.14 

Red Polled 138.03 197.80 13.1 3773.7 339.64 201.61 

Brown Swiss 147.26 183.08 12.7 3943.9 354.95 207.69 

French Canadian 113.10 176.34 13.3 3287.4 295.86 182.76 

Shorthorn 162.12 172.84 12.8 4086.6 367.79 205.67 

Polled Jersey 109.47 169.44 13.9 2831.7 254.85 145.38 

Dutch Belted 132.32 116.94 12.3 3066.5 275.98 143.66 

The gain in live weight during the test for the different breeds was as 
follows: Shorthorns 802 pounds; Holsteins 391; Dutch Belted 376; Red 
Polled 349; French Canadian 288; Polled Jersey 275; Ayrshire 218; Brown 
Swiss 198; Guernsey 195; Jersey 189. 

Every one of the fifty cows entering the test May 1st came through 
the six months' trial in good condition, nearly all having gained a little in 



VARIATION IN TESTS OF MILK. 167 

weight (some of the more beefy ones gaining considerable as is indicated by 
the best gains). 

A tabulation of results of this test combining the production of butter- 
fat and solids not fat has been made at what may be called farmers' prices, 
that is, the net price of butter to the creamery patron plus feeding value of 
skim milk. For the months during which the test was conducted (May 1 to 
November 1) 16c. is taken as this value of butter, and by a sort of established 
rule among experimenters and writers, 2c. per pound for solids not fat, or 
about 18c. per 100 pounds of average skim milk. 

The following table shows the standing of the herds on this very prac- 
tical basis: 

Value 
Value solids 
butter at not fat. Total Cost of Net 
Breed. 16c lb. 2c lb. credit, feed. Profit. 

Guernseys $234.93 $50.54 $285.47 $136.99 $148.48 

Ayrshire 229.53 59.32 288.85 140.98 147.87 

Jersey 232.49 50.50 282.99 137.78 145.21 

Holstein 240.16 69.34 309.50 164.69 144.81 

Red Polled 214.93 52.64 267.51 138.03 129.54 

Brown Swiss 211.41 56.41 267.82 147.26 120.56 

French-Canadian 185.23 46.07 231.30 113.10 118.20 

Shorthorn 214.34 58.95 273.29 162.12 111.17 

Polled Tersey 178.50 37.67 216.17 109.47 106.70 

Dutch Belted 159.52 44.38 20390 132.32 71.58 



l All that is great in man comes through 
work; and civilization is its product.' 1 
— Samuel Smiles. 



"Knowledge, in truth, is the great sun in the 
firmament. Life and power are scattered with 
all its beams." — Daniel Webster. 



168 



BREEDS OF COWS ; VIEWS ON THE BUILDING UP OF 
A DAIRY HERD. 



BY PROF. S. M. TRACY, FORMERLY DIRECTOR MISSISSIPPI 
AGRICULTURAL, EXPERIMENT STATION. 

Biloxi, Miss. 

The article that follows is a brief review of the qualities of the leading 
breeds of dairy cattle and suggestions in regard to herd management, 
comprising a part of farmers' bulletin No. 151, recently issued by the 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. Its writer and purpose are well set 
forth in this paragraph recommending its publication by the bureau: 

"The bulletin was prepared by Prof. S. M. Tracy, formerly director 
of the Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, as the result of twenty 
years' residence, experience and observation in Mississippi, with particular 
reference to Southern conditions and needs. The aim has been to give 
simple directions for the encouragement and information of those to whom 
the care of cows and their products is comparatively new, as is the case in 
the region for which the bulletin has been specially prepared." 

While the report as a whole has special reference to dairying in the 
southern states, the selection that is here given has its field of application 
everywhere, and is full of helpful, practical suggestions to every reader. 

The illustrations with this article show splendid types of Ayrshire, 
Devon Holstein, Brown Swiss and Dutch Belted cows, while numerous 
views of noted cows of all prominent breeds appear in the experiment 
station reports elsewhere — notable examples of what has been accom- 
plished up to the moment, and the best of guides for the dairying — ■ 
the higher order of dairying — of the future: 

BREEDS OF COWS. 

The best cow for any dairy is the one which will give the greatest 
profit. To which one of the so-called dairy breeds this cow will belong de- 
pends on the location, the character of the pastures, the care given to the 
herd, and whether the product to be marketed is milk, butter or cheese. 
The dairyman who depends wholly on the sale of milk may find it more 
profitable to keep a different breed from the one he would select were he 
making butter or cheese, while, if he wishes to produce beef and also a 

169 



170 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

moderate amount of milk or butter, a still different breed may be better 
adapted to his purpose. Many swine raisers claim that there is "more in the 
feed than in the breed", but this is not true of cattle. The best breed for 
milk or butter is never the best for beef. 

The more common breeds for dairy purposes are the Jerseys, Ayr- 
shires, Guernseys, Holstein-Friesians, Devons and milking strains of Short- 
horns, though Dutch Belted, Brown Swiss, and a few other breeds have 
their admirers among dairymen. 

The Jerseys. 

The Jerseys, formerly known as Alderneys, are in this country the 
most common breed, where cows are kept for strictly dairy purposes, and 
with no regard for beef qualities. The cows are small, generally weigh- 
ing below 1,000 pounds, usually rather angular in outline, nervous, good 
feeders, and producing liberal yields of very rich milk. For genera- 
tions they have been bred exclusively for the production of butter. Their 
milk is usually very rich, that from a large number of cows tested at various 
experiment stations, as reported by Professor Woll, averaging 5.4 per cent 
of butter fat, and those at the Columbian Exposition averaging 4.88 per 
cent. They are such persistent milkers that it is sometimes difficult to 
dry them off between calves, and the records of many herds show an average 
yield of over 5,000 pounds of milk per cow per year. Records of individual 
cows show much larger yields, some running as high as 10,000 to 12,000 
pounds, and there are two well authenticated records of cows which have 
produced over 16,000 pounds of milk within twelve months. That the 
milk of Jersey cows is rich in butter fat is shown by the fact that many 
herds produce an average annual yield of over 300 pounds of butter per 
cow. Herds averaging 400 pounds per cow are not uncommon, while 
single animals have produced more than double that amount within the 
same time. Jerseys are more numerous than cows of any other single breed 
in the South, and many of the native cattle in that region show a strong 
mixture of Jersey blood. 

The Ayrshires. 

Ayrshires resemble Jerseys to a considerable extent, and are very 
popular in the dairy sections of Canada and the Northeastern states, 
though not common in the South. The cows are rather small in size, 
seldom weighing more than 1,000 pounds each, but are good milk pro- 
ducers, 5,000 pounds of milk per year being a common yield. One noted 
herd, averaging 14 cows in milk, has a record of an average product of 6,407 
pounds of milk per year for each cow for nineteen years. In another ease 
19 cows averaged 6,956 pounds in one year, and in numerous instances 
single cows have given from 10,000 to 12,000 pounds. The milk is some- 
what above the average in quality, though not so rich as that from the Jer- 
seys. Woll gives the average fat content as 3.6 per cent, while the New 



BREEDS OF COWS. 



171 



York (Geneva) Experiment Station gives it as 3.57 per cent. The cows are 
not as gentle as are the Jerseys and Holsteins, but are more active, better 
"rustlers," will live on poorer feed, and will find grazing on rougher pastures. 
Steers and dry cows fatten readily, and, though small, make excellent beef. 

The Holstein-Friesians. 

The Holstein-Friesians, though one of the oldest of the dairy breeds 
in Europe, are of comparatively recent introduction into this country, 
and are giving excellent satisfaction wherever thev are handled 




GLADYS DRVMMOND— TYPICAL AYRSHIRE COW. 
Owned by J. F. Converse, Woodville, N. Y. Has Won Several Prizes in the Ring. 

under proper conditions. They need luxuriant pastures, rich feed and 
good care to make them succeed well, and are likely to be disappointing 
when they are not given the best of feed and attention. The cows 
are large, weighing from 1,000 to 1,400 pounds, and are irregularly 
marked with black and white. They are very gentle and easy to handle. 
They fatten quickly at any age, and so are readily turned into beef when 
past their usefulness in the dairy. The calves are large and strong, and the 
surplus males always bring good prices as veal, or they may be made into 
profitable steers. The cows yield enormous quantities of milk, sometimes 



172 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

averaging per month an amount equal to their own weight, for ten or twelve 
successive months. 

Although the quantity of milk produced is far beyond that from most 
other breeds, its quality is usually poor, and in some cases has been below 
the standard fixed by state or municipal laws. The milk is usually lighter 
colored than that of the Jerseys, even when fairly rich, and those who have 
been accustomed to milk of a richer appearance sometimes object to buy- 
ing it on account of the absence of color, which gives an impression of poorer 
quality. Many individual cows, however, produce milk of excellent qual- 
ity, and there are records of cows which have yielded as much as 25 pounds 
of butter in a week. 

The Devons. 

Devons are very popular in many localities, especially where the 
production of milk and butter is not the sole object for which the ani- 
mals are kept. The cows are of good size, averaging perhaps 1,000 
pounds in weight. They are good rangers, quick and active, but very 
docile, easily handled, and fair but usually not persistent milkers. The 
milk, however, is unusually rich in quality, the tests reported by Professor 
Woll averaging 4.6 per cent, of butter fat, while tests of 72 animals reported 
by the New York Experiment Station averaged 4.15 per cent. Some 
families of the Devons contain heavy milkers, yields of 5,000 pounds per 
year being not uncommon. Where it is desired to combine beef production 
with dairving the Devons are very satisfactory, as the calves grow rapidly 
and the steers fatten very quickly. It is important to note that Devons 
have been sucessfully introduced in different parts of the South, and have 
shown their value in improving the common stock of the country for both 
milk and meat. The steers make better work oxen than those of any other 
breed. 

The Shorthorns. 

While the Shorthorns are usually regarded as a beef breed, there 
are many good milkers among them, and the ''milking strains" are 
favorites where the production of beef is the main object, and at the 
same time a good yield of milk and butter is desired. Individual cows 
of this breed have been known to produce 10,000 to 12,000 pounds of 
milk in a season, and entire herds have averaged from 6,500 to 7,500 pounds. 
The milk is of good quality and creams easily, though the butter is usually 
pale in color. At the Columbian Exposition test the Shorthorn milk av- 
eraged 3.64 per cent, of butter fat, while the report of Prof. Woll gives the 
average as 3.97 per cent. These cattle are less common in the Gulf States 
than are those of the other breeds mentioned, and, where found, they have 
been raised almost exclusively for the production of beef, but it is not difficult 
to find there individuals and even large herds which are also profitable dairy 



BREEDS OF COWS. 



173 



animals. This is particularly true of grade cows of this blood 
of Shorthorn bulls from milking families. 

The dual-purpose cow. 



-the offspring 



Though many attempts have been made to develop a breed of cattle 
profitable for both beef and milk, success in that direction has not yet 
been reached, and it seems more than probable that such a breed will 
never be secured. It is the natural tendency of every cow to use her 




' 






• 



JENNIE MAY 7157-TYP1CAL DEVON COW. 

Owned Dy Stockwell & Uifford, Sutton, Mass. 

surplus food either in growth and the accumulation of fat, or in the 
production of milk. Either of these tendencies may be greatly strengthened 
by intelligent breeding and selection, but no breed has ever been developed 
which excels in both beef and butter-making qualities, and improvement 
in either direction has usually been accompanied by a corresponding loss 
in the other. It is true that there are some breeds which make animals 
of fair size and which arc also fair dairy animals, but they are only fair as 



174 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

either. The best beef animals and the best milking animals have never 
been found in the same individuals or even in the same breed, and the 
cattle raiser who attempts to raise beef for a living and at the same time 
to make money by using his cows in a dairy, is almost sure to find one 
branch of his business unprofitable. A profitable beef animal is one 
thing, while a profitable dairy cow is something quite different. The 
man who expects to make his living from a dairy should select the 
breed which will give him the greatest amount of butter and milk from 
the smallest number of animals at tne least cost. 

Dairy breeds compared. 

All breeds have admirers who point with pride to the large milk 
records made by their favorites. Each breed has its special good quali- 
ties as well as its peculiar weaknesses, and no one of them is best suited 
to all localities or to all branches of dairying. In breed tests made by the 
Maine, New York (Geneva), and New Jersey Experiment stations, the 
breeds tested have made averages which place them in the following order: 

1. As to yield of milk: Holstein, Shorthorn, Ayrshire, Guernsey 
Jersey, Devon. 

2. As to richness of milk: Jersey, Guernsey, Devon, Shorthorn, 
Ayrshire, Holstein. 

To summarize the matter of breeds: The Jerseys produce a large 
yield of rich milk and are good rustlers, but of little value for beef; the 
Ayrshires are good milk producers, will thrive on a poorer pasture than 
most others, and are easily fattened when wanted for beef; the Holstein - 
Friesians produce an immense yield of milk which is not rich, and are easily 
made into good beef, but require the best of care and an abundance of 
rich and succulent feed; the Devons produce a moderate amount of rich 
milk and are quickly made into good beef; the "milking strains" of Short- 
horns produce a good yield of milk which is of good quality, and can be 
turned into excellent beef at any time, but are not good rustlers and need 
the best of pastures to do well. Probably three-fourths of the pure-blooded 
cows now in the Gulf States are Jerseys. 

DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT. 

Whatever breed may be chosen for the dairy or for any other purpose, 
the individual animals should be good of their kind. A good pure-bred 
animal is the best, but a poor specimen of any breed, no matter how good 
its pedigree, is worth less than a good scrub. 

The cows. The selection of animals for the foundation of a dairy herd 
is a matter which requires great care, judgment and experience. The best 
of feed and management cannot make a profitable cow of one which natur- 
ally gives only a small amount of thin milk. When one has unlimited means 
at his disposal, it is comparatively easy to buy cows which have established 



HERD MANAGEMENT. 



175 



records as heavy milkers, but that method is too expensive for the dairy- 
man who must depend on the sale of dairy products for his income. Under 
all ordinary circumstances it is better to begin by buying the best herd 
which can be afforded, and then to maintain and improve it by raising 
calves from the best cows and occasionally buying a cow which is known to 
be unusually good. As the herd increases beyond the desired limit, either 
by breeding or by purchase, the inferior cows should be sold, so that the 
quality of the herd as a whole will show a constant improvement. The 




HANNA MELCHIOR 43017— TYPICAL H0LSTE1N-FKIESIAN COW. 

Owned by Frank B. Fargo. Lake Mills. Wis. When four years and nine months of age— April and 
May. 1902— produced in tour weeks official test, 1,980.09 pounds of milk, containing 59.577 
pounds fat. 

poorest cows in the herd should always be for sale at little more than their 
beef value, while the best should always be kept until their period of use- 
fulness is past. 

When it is not possible to purchase pure bloods, the first cows pur- 
chased should be good grades of the breed selected. None but good ani- 
mals should be purchased at any price, as a poor cow — one which will not 
yield at least 200 pounds of butter in a year, or its equivalent in milk — will 
little more than pay her board. A real lover of cattle (the only man who 



176 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

will succeed as a dairyman) will not be satisfied without owning a few pure- 
bred and registered animals. 

The bull. In all cases the bull should be a pure-bred, and he should 
be selected from a family of good milkers. Usually it is better to buy a 
young bull, as one which has been raised on the place and has learned to know 
his master is much more easily handled than is a mature animal when brought 
to a strange place. When a good bull has been secured and has proved 
his merit, he should be kept as long as possible. He should always have 
kind and gentle treatment, but there should never be any question as to 
who is master. A ring should be put into his nose by the time he is a year 
old, and he should always be led by a strap or staff snapped into this ring. 
Whenever he is tied he should be fastened with a rope he cannot break, 
and all fences should be so high and strong that he will never attempt to 
go over or through them. When a young bull is handled properly he never 
learns his strength, and so will be handled with comparative safety, but 
success in a single unruly attempt will teach him a lesson he will never forget. 
Many bulls live to old age without showing any unpleasant temper, but one 
should never be trusted, as the older he becomes the greater is the liability 
to a sudden vicious outbreak. 

It is much better for both the health and temper of the bull to give 
him abundant exercise, either in a pasture or at work. When he can not 
have a pasture to himself it is good economy to use his surplus energy in do- 
ing useful work on a tread power. Such a power, of sufficient size to give 
him all needed exercise, costs little, and it is much better to have him do 
the churning, pumping, cutting hay and grinding feed than to have him 
waste his time and strength tearing up the ground or attempting to get 
out of his lot, or to become lazy and vicious standing in his stable. While 
it is not often good practice to keep him in the pasture with the cows, he 
should be kept in their sight as much as possible, and in the same stable 
at night. 

When cows should "come fresh". Whether cows should be bred to 
drop their calves in the fall or in the spring depends largely on how the 
marketing is to be done. Milk and butter usually bring better prices in 
winter than in summer, and when such products are disposed of at whole- 
sale it is better to have the larger supply when prices are highest, but when 
one sells at retail to regular customers he must arrange to have his supply 
nearly constant in order to hold his trade. 

A cow will give more milk and give it at a smaller cost when her calf 
is dropped in the fall than when she is "fresh" in the spring. When a cow 
"comes fresh" in the fall she is almost immediately put on her winter feed 
and will continue to give a liberal supply of milk until the spring grazing 
stimulates a renewed flow during the later months of her lactation period. 
Her dry period then comes in late summer, when prices are usually low, 
when stabling is uncomfortable, and when the handling and care of the 
milk is more troublesome than at any other time. Service in December 



HERD MANAGEMENT. 



177 



or January will allow the cows to rest during the hottest and most trying 
months, when they give the smallest profits, and make them most produc- 
tive when prices are highest. 

"Drying off" cows. The cow should "go dry" a month to six weeks 
before she is expected to calve. Some cows are such persistent milkers 
that it is impossible to dry them off; but such cases are rare, and can usually 
be prevented if the young cow has the right treatment after her first calf. 
If she does not show a strong inclination to go dry when within two months 
of the time she is expected to drop a calf, her feed should be made as light 




NANCY 405— TYPICAL BROWN SWISS COW. 
Owned by E. M. Barton, Hinsdale, 111. First prize cow in Brown Swiss Class at Minnesota, Wis- 
consin and Illinois state fairs in 1897, at Trans-Mississippi Exposition, Omaha, and Illinois 
and Wisconsin state fairs in 1898, at Minnesota and Wisconsin state fairs in 1899, and at 
Illinois state fair in 1901. Since this date Nancy dropped triplet calves, she has a twelve- 
mon h s record of 9,925 pounds milk and 552 pounds butter. Nancy was dropped March 15, 18S7; 
her weight is 1,400 pounds. 

as will keep her in fair flesh, she should be given little or no grain feed, and 
the milking should be done less thoroughly. Occasionally a cow will be found 
which will persist in giving milk through the entire gestation period, and 
in such cases the only thing to be done during the last month is to milk 
her sufficiently to prevent the udder from becoming caked or inflamed. 
Any milking during that month beyond what is absolutely necessary for 
the health of the cow causes a strain on the vitality of the calf, is encouraging 



178 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



a bad tendency, and should be avoided. On the other hand, if the young 
cow shows an inclination to go dry too soon, every effort should be made 
to prolong her milking period, which can usually be accomplished by giving 
her more succulent food and a moderate increase in her grain ration. With 
nearly ad cows the length of subsequent lactation periods is determined by 
the length of the first period, so it is of the greatest importance that the 
length of the first period be made as long as possible without crowding the 
second period too closely. 

Calves. The calf should never be allowed to suck its dam after the 
first day, and many dairymen never allow a calf to suck at all. Any cow 
which is worth keeping in a dairy secretes more milk than it is possible for 




typical dutch belted cow and twin calves. 

Owned by S. A. F. Servin of "Valley Farm." Warwick, N. Y. The Valley Farm herd numbers 65 
t head and has a long record of prizes won at slate fairs and other exhibitions, taking 41 first 
premiums and 26 seconds in 1901 alone, and winner of three championship cups for the three 
years successively shown. 1897, 189s and 1901. Twocowsfrom this herd. Belle of Warwick and 
Madeline, were leading cows of their breed at the Pan-American Model Dairy at Buffalo. The 
Dutch Belted cattle are native of Holland, though a distinct breed from the Holsteins. 

the young calf to use, and the sooner the cow and calf are separated the 
better for both. When the calf is taken away at once, and the milking is 
done by hand, the cow soon forgets her offspring and comes to regard the 
operation of being milked as the natural means of relief for her udder. She 
will "give down" her milk to the milker as readily as to the calf, the owner 
can be sure that the udder is completely drained at each milking, and there 



HERD MANAGEMENT. 179 

will be far less danger from sore teats or a caked bag than when the milker 
attempts to divide the milking between a headstrong calf and the pail. The 
calf should always be given the first milk which comes from the cow after 
it is dropped, but the younger it is when it has its first lesson in drinking 
from a pail, the easier it can be taught. At first, the milk should be given 
while it is fresh and warm, and, if it is unusually rich, it should be diluted 
with warm water. After the calf is two weeks old, a little sweet skim milk 
may be mixed with the fresh milk, and the amount may be gradually in- 
creased until the calf is a month old, when skim milk may be fed alone, 
though it should be fed warm until the calf begins eating other food. Scours 
and diarrhea are usually caused by overfeeding or by feeding milk which 
is too rich. 

The calf should be kept growing constantly from the time it is dropped 
until it has reached full size, and this should be done by the aid of all the 
hay and roughage it can be induced to eat, and with only a small amount 
of grain. When the growth is made principally on hay and pasture, the 
calf may become very pot-bellied, but that is in no way objectionable, as 
a large belly indicates a large development of the digestive organs, and a 
stomach capable of holding and digesting a large amount of feed is an ab- 
solute necessity to every animal which is to become a profitable cow. 

If the dam is a grade cow of a small-sized breed and the calf is a male, 
it is often better to kill the calf as soon as it is dropped ; also such pure-blood 
male calves as are not wanted for service or for sale as breeders. Bull calves 
of the larger breeds are better worth keeping, at least until they can be 
made into veal, but the man who makes dairying his principal business will 
seldom find it profitable to raise and fatten steers. 

Heifer calves should be handled very often to keep them gentle, and 
frequent manipulation of the udder during the first pregnancy will do much 
to stimulate its development. This frequent handling of the udder is of 
no little importance, not only in securing its better development, but also 
to make the heifer so familiar with the operation that when her calf is 
dropped she will take the milking as a matter of course, and will not require 
to be "broken." The heifer should be served so that she will drop her first 
calf when she is about two years old, as breeding when young will make 
a more productive cow than when the mating is delayed until another year. 
When the first calf is not dropped until the third year, one calf and one year 
of milking are lost, and the heifer acquires a tendency to use her surplus feed 
in the laying on of fat instead of in the secretion of milk — a tendency which 
will be retained through life and which would have been avoided by earlier 
breeding. 



"i have but one lam}) by which my feet are 
guided, and that is the lamp of experience. I 
know no way of judging of the future but by 
the past. "—Patrick Henry. 



ISO 



COMMON AILMENTS OF COWS AND CALVES, AND 
THEIR TREATMENT. 



BY DR. A, H. HARTWIG, VETERINARIAN. 

Watertown, Wis. 

ACUTE INDIGESTION. 

Acute indigestion is the sudden cessation of digestion whether partial 
or complete, and just as soon as you get suspended digestion, fermentation 
and decomposition take place at once, evolution of gas is inevitable, and, 
unless relieved, serious results will follow. It is often fatal in from 20 
minutes to 60 hours, but if the animal lives 24 hours, she will likely recover. 
Most oi the deaths occur in the first 6 or 7 hours. 

Causes. Overloading of the paunch; cold, frosted or frost covered 
fodder; the feeding on pastures before the proper season; very hot or cold 
drinks ; and external colds, improper feeding; a sudden change from dry 
to green food or from green to dry; new hay ingested to excess, especially 
if the animals drink a large quantity of water immediately after eating; 
eating the placenta, mouldy or decomposing food, and foreign bodies of all 
kinds. 

Symptoms. The animal keeps away from the manger; the back is 
arched upward, the limbs are gathered together, the coat becomes stairing 
and the animal expresses an anxious countenance; the ears and horns are 
alternately cold and hot; there are often chills and muscular tremblings; 
the appetite and rumination are suspended. The abdomen becomes in- 
flated and is especially prominent on the left side. The paunch is lifted 
by gases; its contents can only be felt by exerting strong pressure upon it, 
which sometimes produces a dull bruit. The movements of the paunch 
and its bruits are weakened and sometimes entirely suspended. Defeca- 
tions arc rare; the fecal matters are harder and of a darker color than normal, 
and often enveloped in a thin crust ; we may find them ring-streaked and 
leaving a putrid odor; they are sometimes covered with mucus and form 
clammy and shiny masses. When diarrhea exists, the excrements 
are mixed with alimentary matters which have not at all been digested. 

181 



182 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

The animal has slight colics, indicated by stamping and kicking towards the 
abdominal walls, frequently towards the flanks, and twitching the tail. 

Treatment. Submit the animal to a severe diet; such is always the 
first indication to follow, and it must be enforced as long as rumination is 
interrupted. 

Increase the thirst by giving salt freely, if the patient will not lick it, 
drinks with salt must be administered in order to induce her to drink water 
as much as possible. If there is constipation, or if defecations are infrequent. 
1 to U pounds of epsom salt and 2 drams of powdered ginger may be 
given in two quarts of warm water. In very urgent cases of bloating 
the trocar and cannula should not be spared in order to allow the gases 
to escape from the paunch. Where the peristaltic movements are want- 
ing, 3 drams of tincture of white helebore may be given. 

CHRONIC INDIGESTION. 

This is a functional derangement of the stomach; it comes on slowly and 
requires a long time to cure. During its existence it is not serious or danger- 
ous; that is in the ordinary case. It is very common in dairy cows, and 
there are three influences that operate to produce it. First, errors in feeding; 
second, changes in the gastric and other secretions; third, abnormalities 
affecting the movements of the stomach, such as cancerous and other 
growths. 

Symptoms. The animal usually has a capricious appetite, sometimes 
hungry, sometimes no appetite, an unnatural thirst, unnatural hunger for 
alkalies, will lick the walls and eat the mortar from between the bricks, eat 
large quantities of clay, etc. ; this all shows a tendency to indigestion, hence 
the animal's desire to obtain alkali. The limit of their thirst is their capacity ; 
they often turn up their upper lip in bad cases. As the disease runs on, the 
coat becomes stairing and rough, the animal thin and pot-bellied: there is 
palpitation of the heart. 

Treatment. Give a complete change in food. Grass is best if in 
season. When feeding grain have it ground and mix it with bran half and 
half; limit the water to one-half bucket four or five times daily and dissolve 
in each drink one-half teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda. 

Then give the following: Arsenicum 1 dram; powdered gentian root 
1* ounce; powdered hydrastis 1^ ounce; powdered nux vomica 1^ ounce; 
powdered wood charcoal 2 ounces; mix and make into 12 powders. Give 
one in food morning and night until relieved. 

DYSENTERY OF THE NEWLY BORN CALF. 

This affection and pyemic polyarthritis are the most fatal diseases of 
young age. It is also observed in the foal, lamb, dog and cat. 

According to some of our most eminent authorities, it is so common in 
certain districts of Austria that in one region, in a total of 3,318 calves 1,196 



COMMON AILMENTS OF COWS AND CALVES, AND TREATMENT. . 183 

have been affected by it, of which 1,152 (97 per cent.) died. In 1S84, in 
the same districts, its mortality jvas 55 per cent. In general it is developed 
from the first to the third day following birth; after the fourth day it is much 
less frequent; young animals are often affected by it before having sucked; 
milk, therefore, has nothing to do with the development of the disease. 
Its exciting cause is evidently an infectious element yet unknown, which 
is contained in the excrements and is carried by them. i 

The symptoms are almost similar in all species. The calf refuses to 
partake of food, it shows symptoms of restlessness, bellows and ejects, by 
violent efforts, very soft diarrheic excrements which soon become liquid, 
whitish (mucous diarrhea), or mixed with clots of curdled milk (white 
dysentery); they are very often bloody; later, we notice continued and 
in/oluntary evacuations. The patients, which are exhausted remain con- 
stantly recumbent; at intervals they are subject to convulsions; the expired 
air has a fetid odor. The animals often die within twenty-four hours, 
sometimes within three days. In many cases all the calves of one stable 
will perish. Those which survive remain weak and sickly for a long 
time. 

Treatment. The prophylaxis consists in separation of the healthy 
from the sick animals, and disinfection of the premises as well as the genital 
canals of the females before and after parturition. The same disinfecting 
agents may be employed as are recommended for Epizootic. 

Abortion. When dysentery of the calves exists in an enzootic state 
in a stable it is proper to place the cows with calves in an isolated and well- 
kept stable one or two months before parturition. Experience has taught 
that these means are much more efficient than medical treatment. 

The first indication of treatment is the administration of a light laxa 
tive — (one or two table spoonfuls of castor-oil) ; then give each calf 

Tincture of Opium, drams 2 
Tannin and 

Salicylic acid — of each, drams 1^ 
Mix. 
Give in a pint of linseed tea every three hours until relieved. 

INFECTIOUS ABORTION OF THE COW. 
Epizootic Abortion. 

There is scarcely a disease among dairy cows which brings about so 
great a loss to the owner as does epizootic abortion. 

So common is this trouble in the dairy districts of this country that 
the practicing veterinarian in these districts is almost daily confronted with 
these questions: 

What can I do for my cows, they are aborting one after another, and 
the production of milk from my herd is rapidly decreasing. The cows do 



184 , THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK.. 

not thrive well after aborting, some continue to discharge a fetid substance 
from the genitals for a considerable length of time, and others will not breed, 
no matter how often they are served in their regular periods of heat. 

Can I do anything to stop the cows from aborting, or to prevent the 
disease from going through my entire herd? These complaints have be- 
come quite general in dairy districts. 

Epizootic abortion has been known to exist permanently on some 
farms, and to cause for many years serious pecuniary loss. 

This enzootic or epizootic character of an accident which is usually 
produced by trivial causes, such as contusions, acute febrile diseases, cold, 
poisoning, ingestion of tainted or mouldy food, and unwholesome drinks, 
indicates that it is sometimes of an infectious nature. 

As long as its pathologic agent is not known, epizootic abortion must 
be classified in the group of specific diseases. 

The infection seems to be produced by a "stable miasma." It has 
been demonstrated that the virulent agent exists in the discharge of the 
genital canals and in the foetal fluid; by the intermediation of these liquids 
healthy animals may be affected. By introducing into the vagina of healthy 
cows the vaginal mucus of a cow which had ]ust aborted, abortion has been 
produced in from nine to twenty-one days after inoculation. 

Experience has sufficiently demonstrated that the disease is eminently 
contagious, and that it may be transmitted directly or by certain inter- 
mediaries through the vaginal discharge, litter, by persons who are charged 
with the care of the patient, by owners or veterinarians (after the extrac- 
tion of the placenta from an animal which has aborted) and even by breed- 
ing males. 

The transmission of the disease from a cow which has aborted to its 
immediate neighbors is the rule, and it is much favored by the existence, 
behind the animals, of a trench where the vaginal discharge and excrementi- 
tious matters accumulate. 

The causes to which the disease was formerly ascribed — tainted food, 
rainy years, bad quality of food, permanent stabling, close breeding, etc, — 
are but predisposing conditions. By weakening the organism they facilitate 
the introduction and pullulation of the infectious matter. 

Epizootic abortion may establish itself in the best kept stables — a fact 
which proves that uncleanliness plays but a secondary etiological role. 

Nothing positive is as yet known as to its pathology. It is very probable 
that the infectious agents penetrate into the womb through the vagina and 
as, like specific agents in other diseases, their pullulation in the foetal en- 
velopes determines sufficient alterations to lead to abortion. The process 
is, no doubt, propagated from the covering to the foetus, as the death of 
the latter seems to demonstrate antepartum in most cases of epizootic 
abortion. 

At the present time it is not known whether the virus may penetrate 
into the blood through the respiratory or intestinal tracts. Some authorities 



COMMON AILMENTS OF COWS AND CALVES, AND TREATMENT. 185 

consider the cause of abortion an infectious inflammation of the serous 
coating of the uterus. Others claim that the specific agent multiplies 
between the uterine mucous membrane and the chorion, that it does not 
exercise any noxious influence upon the former, but that it attacks the 
envelopes after each new conception; it would thus determine repeated 
abortions, and lead to sterility by communicating to the uterine secretion 
an acid reaction which is fatal to the spermatozoids. 

In the cow, abortion generally takes place from the third to the seventh 
month of gestation; the symptoms are: a redness of the vaginal mucous 
membrane, on which we frequently observe eruptions in the form of pimples, 
about the size of a millet seed, discharge from the vulva of a reddish liquid, 
and a lessening of the lacteal secretion, which acquires the consistency of 
the colostrum. Three days after the appearance of the discharge the abortion 
takes place and gives rise only to insignificant general symptoms; the 
foetus is usually dead. Sometimes the mother suffers for a long time. She 
may become sterile. 

Treatment. 

The prophylaxis is very important. If once started it is impossible 
to prevent abortion; the medical agents are of no avail. 

We must, first of all, isolate the sick animals; it is advantageous to 
put the healthy cows at pasture, if grass is in season. It is also necessary 
to destroy the after-birth and the foetus, and thoroughly disinfect the stable 
in which the cows have aborted; whitewash the walls and give plenty of 
light in the stables. About the best agent to apply to the floor is air-slaked 
lime. Apply it once daily after cleansing, covering the entire floor with a 
thin coat. In addition to the above it is well to spray the entire stable 
with a solution of creolin or chloro-naptholium twice or three times a week. 

The cows which have aborted should not be allowed to retain the 
afterbirth; the same must be completely removed, and the uterus and 
vagina thoroughly cleansed by irrigating same with a tepid 1 to 5,000 solution 
of bichloride of mercury, using from 8 to 10 quarts of the solution orrce daily 
until the disappearance of the vaginal discharge. This can best be done by 
means of a large fountain syringe, conducting the rubber tube by hand into 
the fundus of the organs. Until the vaginal discharge has entirely disap- 
peared, no cow should be used for breeding purposes. 

We may also increase the resistance of all the animals by means of food 
rich in nitrogen and by administration of iron tonics. 

Subcutaneous injections of a 2% solution of carbolic acid have been 
experimented with, which have given variable results. Theoretically, car- 
bolic acid seems to be inefficient; in the organism it is rapidly transformed 
into sulpho-phenic acid, which is without effect. 

In case of sterility, a change of bull may have a favorable influence; 
this. has been explained by the constitutional condition of the progenitor; 



186 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

it depends perhaps upon the fact that the male sometimes becomes an 
agent of transmission of the disease. 

MILK FEVER. 

This is a peculiar affection, especially prone to the best members of 
the dairy herd. It rarely occurs in cows with their first calves, and not 
often in old animals. From five to nine years appears to be the critical 
period. Well fed animals are more liable to the disease than those in poor 
condition. It generally occurs after an easy delivery, and rarely follows 
difficult labor or abortion. Usually it sets in within three days after 
parturition. 

Symptoms. 

This disease is a form of paralysis associated with the process of par- 
turition. First there may be noticed a vacant stare of the eyes and slight 
twitching of the muscles; her gait becomes unsteady, gradually losing con- 
trol of her hind parts; staggering, she will finally fall to the ground, usually 
unable to rise. She will lie on her chest with her neck arched to one side 
placing her muzzle vipon her flank, her eyes become fixed and glassy, her 
respiration labored. She grates her teeth and expresses all evidences of 
being in great pain. A stage of stupor will follow the above in a short time 
and death ensues in from 6 to 12 hours, if not relieved. 

Treatment. 

Dissolve 2\ drams of potassium iodide in a quart of water which has 
been previously boiled, and keep the solution as nearly as you can the 
temperature of the body blood. Then milk every drop of milk from the 
cow's udder, and clean the udder with soap and water. • Then disinfect 
the udder and teats with a solution of zenoleum (1 teaspoonful to a pint 
of water). Then take a small glass funnel and attach to same a rubber 
hose about 5 feet long; affix to the end of this hose an ordinary milking 
tube, insert the milking tube into the teat and slowly pour in your solution, 
dividing it equally between the four teats. When this is done apply mas- 
sage to entire udder for 5 or 10 minutes every hour until the cow comes to 
her feet. Do not allow the calf to suck during the time the cow is being 
treated. 

If the cow is costive, remove the contents of the rectum by hand. In 
case of a weak heart, small doses of aromatic spirits of ammonia may be 
given with water every hour. Avoid large and bulky doses, or your patient 
may suffocate from same. If your patient is not on her feet in 8 or 10 hours, 
the above udder injection dose may be repeated, but it is rarely necessary. 
This is practically the Schmidt treatment, and is almost a specific. About 
the best known prevention is to avoid high feeding before calving. 



BUILDING SILOS, GROWING THE CORN, AND MAKING 

SILAGE. 



BY A. W. TROW, DAIRYMAN. 

Glenville, Minn. 

Silo and Silage. 

To attain the best results the dairyman should have a silo, as by it the 
cows can be furnished with a palatable and succulent food the year round. 
All kinds of stock thrive on green grass and as silage has the same laxative 
and corrective qualities, it is equivalent to grass. By the use of silage stock 
may be kept in that healthy, sleek condition that cannot be otherwise 
obtained except when running on good summer pasture. In short, silage 
is grass in winter. 

The silo solves the problem of storing corn fodder. 

As corn fodder has come to be one of the surest and most productive 
of the forage crops that grow in the dairy belt, it has become necessary for 
us to seek the best and most convenient means of handling it. Its relia- 
bility and enormous yield renders it almost indispensible to those who would 
make a profitable production of milk on high priced lands. 

The advent of the corn binder, which has taken the place of the old 
hand corn knife, has solved the question of harvesting corn fodder. How- 
ever, there is yet an absence of any economical system of handling dry corn 
fodder in the barn in any form that brings it to the manger in a condition 
that is relished by the cow and consumed without waste. It is beyond the 
question of a doubt that for the feeding that must be done inside the barn 
the adoption of the silo is the only alternative. 

While young stock, sheep and horses, may be fed corn fodder in sheltered 
yards and on well sodded pastures where the refuse will be away from the 
buildings, the dairy cow must receive her feed in a comfortable barn. 

Silage as a Substitute for Soiling. 

Many of our farmers who farm on high priced lands have practiced 
a system of soiling by planting corn of different periods of maturing, sorghum, 
peas, oats, rye and other forage plants, to furnish a green feed to partially 
or entirely supplement pasture. These farmers are beginning to realize 

187 




A GOOD PLAN FOR BANK BARN. 

Figure shows the construction of the stave silo. A shows the silo complete on stone foundation, 
with four feeding doors. B is cross section of four staves showing how they are tongued 
and grooved to make them airtight. C shows a method of splicing staves. D shows iron lugs 
for tightening hoops. 

188 



BUILDING SILOS AND MAKING SILAGE. 



189 



that the most of these soiling crops can be dispensed with and all the feed 
raised at one time and in one field in the shape of corn fodder, gathered 
at one harvest and put into the silo for the following summer feeding, and 
thus eliminating the extra expense of caring for so many fields and avoid 
the danger of a failure in some of the many crops that must enter into a 
complete system of soiling. 

The Expense of Storing Silage. 
The expense of filling is often urged as an objection to the silo, but if 
a careful account of all labor is kept, of handling corn fodder by any othe r 
method by which it is so prepared that the stock will consume it as they 




CORN HARVESTER AT WORK IN FIELD CUTTING CORN FOR SILO. 

do silage, and in a form that it may be conveniently handled inside the 
barn, it will be found that the expense will be as much or more than when 
it is placed in the silo. 

While there is more labor required for hauling in the green corn for 
the silo than when dry, there is also a large amount of labor saved in other 
ways, as when corn goes into the silo the shocking is eliminated and there 
is no husking, shelling or grinding. 

There is not a better place for the corn grain than with the fodder in 

the silo. t-. -r, 

Expense of Building. 

The cost of a building or a container for silage is no more than when 
shelter is provided for hay, especially when a good hay barn is compared 
with a tub silo. Many farmers have become so accustomed to building 



190 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

high priced barns that they do not question the expense of a thousand- 
dollar hay barn, while they consider a $150 silo an extravagance. 

LOCATION. 

The silo should be placed close to the feeding place as silage is very 
heavy. If located on the outside it should be well secured to the barn, 
to prevent the wind from wrecking it while empty; when built above three 
feet from the barn the space between silo and barn can be so boarded up 
as to make a chute down which the silage may be thrown at feeding lime. 

CAPACITY. 

A twenty cow dairy will need a silo about 16 feet in diameter by 26 
feet high to hold the necessary silage for a six months feeding period. It 
has been found that a silo 36 feet high contains five times as much as one 
12 feet high, which is due to the increased density by settling; it is best 
to build not less than 24 feet high. 

A silo 2f; to 30 feet deep will contain on an average approximately 
enough silage in one cubic foot to feed one cow one day, from this may be 
computed the size of silo required. 

CHEAP SILOS. 

Much dissatisfaction has come from building cheap tub silos, that at 
slight provocation have become wrecked, and no end of discouragement 
has followed the building of elaborate concerns which were placed inside 
of other buildings and lacked the proper construction and ventilation, caus- 
ing them to soon become worthless from decay. 

Tub silos properly constructed have been standing for ten years and 
are still in a good state of preservation. The main requisite is to 
have them made of strong staves of good material held together by a suffi- 
cient mmiber of hoops and well secured to the barn, and the hoops kept 
reasonably tight while the silo is empty. 

BUILDING A TUB SILO FOUNDATION. 

This should be built of good brick or stone, and settled well in the 
ground to keep out rats; otherwise, a cement floor should be provided to 
answer the same purpose. If the drainage is good, a ground floor is as 
good as any for the ensilage to rest upon. 

Many tub silos are now being built without a foundation. A narrow 
trench is dug in the ground one or two feet deep. The tub is set up in this 
trench and then this ditch on both sides is filled in and above the ground 
with a mixture of cement and sand. While this method has not passed the 
experimental stage it is highly recommended by some. 

THE STAVES. 

The tub silo is built on the same principle as a huge barrel, without 
the bulge in the middle. Either 2x6 for a small silo or 2x8 for a large one may 
be used for staves. Bevel the edges of these staves, and have them straight 
so that the pressure of the hoops when tightened will bring them close 



BUILDING SILOS AN'I) MAKING SILAGE. 



191 



together, and the moisture from the silage will cause the cracks to close 
and render the silo air tight. 

SETTING UP THE STAVES. 

The most convenient plan for building this tub is to make, from cheap 
boards, two circles of the same diameter as the inside of the silo to be erected. 




SILO WITH SHINGLE ROOF AND FLAT HOOPS. 

One of these circles should be laid on the foundation, and the other sup- 
ported fourteen or fifteen feet directly above the lower one. The staves 
can then be temporarily fastened to these circles until the hoops are put 
on and drawn up, after which the circles may be removed. 

HOOPS. 

The hoops should be made either ,g x 3 inches flat iron, or of f inch 
round iron, and placed two feet apart at the bottom, with a gradual 



192 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



increase of distance between the hoops until top ones are five feet 
apart. For tightening these hoops cast iron lugs may be used, or if 
hardwood is plenty, a very good lug can be made of a 4x6 hardwood 
timber. 

These may be made to answer for staves by turning them edgewise. 
They will thus fill four inches as a stave and project four inches on the 
outside, through which the hoops can be tightened. It is advisable as a mat- 
ter of convenience in putting up and tightening the hoops to have three or 




SILO WITH BOARD ROOF AND % INCH ROUND-IRON HOOPS. 

four of these lugs. If three 4x6's are used the hoops will need to be about 
19 feet long, three of which will reach around an 18 foot silo. 

OPENINGS. 

Openings should be provided every five or six feet for taking out the 
silage. They should be sawed on an outward bevel from the inside. The 
pressure of the silage will cause this door to fit very tightly. A strip of 
building paper securely tacked over the inside of this, with the silage well 
tramped against it, will obviate all danger of spoiled silage. 

PAINTING. 

A thick coating of hot coal tar, applied to the inside, will avoid any 
possibility of the tub leaking air, and will also do much toward preserving 
the wood. 



BUILDING SILOS AND MAKING SILAGE. 



193 



Much time and expense will be saved if the roof is not put on until 
the silo is filled the first time. This will obviate the necessity of building 
a high and expensive staging, for the silage can be used for that purpose- 
The roof may be made of boards. A board roof answers every purpose, 
costs but a few dollars, and can be put on in a very short time. A pair 
of strap hinges can be fastened to two or three of the boards, which will 
make a cheap and convenient door for taking in the cut corn. 

There is nothing to be gained by having a water proof roof, as moisture 
is not detrimental to silage. The main object of a roof is to keep the tub 




TWO ROUND SILOS WITH STONE FOUNDATIONS AT HUBBLETON, WIS. 

in shape while empty and keep out the snow in winter. Many silo builders 
are now putting on flat roofs, and some are building without any roof 
at all. 

Stone Silo. 

Another form of silo that is practically everlasting and particularly 
recommends itself in those localities where there is an abundant supply of 
stone is the stone silo. While we have had no personal experience in their 
construction we here compile the following suggestions and illustrations 
from the works of Professors Woll and King (Wisconsin Experiment Sta- 
tion) . 

The stone walls should be at least sixteen inches thick, and should be 
jacketed with wood on the outside, to prevent injury from frost, and to 



194 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



form dead air spaces, which will insure perfect preservation of the silage 
clear up to the silo wall. The early stone silos were not protected in this 
manner, and, as a result, the silage often spoiled several inches around the 
silo walls, the stone being more or less porous, and being a fairly good con- 
ductor of heat and cold. This applies still more to brick than to stone 
walls. With the outside covering nailed to studdings, 2x4, no trouble will, 
however, be experienced in either case. Ventilation of the silo frame must 
be provided for as in the case of wooden silos. 

The following arrangement of constructing stone silos has proved very 
convenient, and will make good, substantial silos. The silo is built five to 




CONSTRUCTION OF A KING CIRCULAR ALL STONE SILO. 
A shows a section of the silo, with conical roof, and the arrangement of filling, and feeding doors 
B and C are ground plans of circular and rectangular stone silos; D, E. F shows construction 
of feeding doors. The construction of door jambs, to make them air tight, will be seen in the 
illustration. The doors are made of two layers of 4-inch matched flooring, with a layer of 2-ply 
saturated acid and alkali proof paper, and are held in place with large screws or lag bolts, as 
shown in E and F. The face of the jambs should be lined with 2-ply P. and B. Ruberoid 
paper or its equal; this will act as a gasket to make the do.r perfectly air tight. 

six feet into the ground, if it can safely be done; the foundation wall is made 
two feet thick, and at the level of the ground a 4x6 sill is laid on the outer 
edge of the wall and bedded in mortar; a wooden frame is then erected of 
2x6 studding, sheeted on the inside with common flooring, and on the outside 
with ship lap boarding, with or without building paper on the studding. 
The stone wall is then continued on the inside of this wooden frame up to 
the plate, the corners well rounded off, and the whole inside cemented. 

The stone or brick wall must be made smooth by means of a heavy 
coat of a first-class cement. Since the acid juices of silage are apt to gradu- 
ally soften the cement, it may be found necessary to protect the coating by 
a whitewash of pure cement every other year before the silo is filled. If 



BUILDING SILOS AND MAKING SILAGE. 195 

this precaution is taken the silo will last for generations; some of the earliest 
stone silos built in this country have now been filled every season for over 
twenty years without deteriorating perceptibly.* 

Like the wooden silos, stone silos may be rectangular, square or circu- 
lar; if built according to cither of the first two forms the corners must be 
rounded off so as to assist the settling of the siloed mass, and avoid loss 
through insufficient settling of the mass in the corners. 

PLANTING. 

Corn is beyond all question the best material for making silage; how- 
ever, many other materials are used, Clover, green oats, peas, and even 
sugar beet pulp is often used, yet it is safe to predict that the corn plant 
will always be the chief material used, especially in the corn belt; its enor- 
mous yield and the difficulty in handling corm fodder in other forms 
particularly recommends it for this purpose. 

Some recommend extremely thick planting for the silo while others 
prefer thinner planting that will produce coarser stalks and the necessary 
corn to make a portion of the grain ration; in our own experience we have 
obtained more satisfactory results from the thinner planting thus securing 
a fair percentage of ears. 

WHEN TO FILL. 

Corn-fodder for the silo should be cut at about the same stage as for 
the shock, viz: when the lower leaves begin to turn yellow or when the 
small ears are half or two thirds dented. 

MACHINERY FOR SILO FILLING. 

We are frequently asked if the shredder can be used in silo filling. A 
shredder can be used, yet we prefer a cutter. Cut silage packs better than 
shredded, then most shredders are combined huskers and shredders and 
it is a difficult task to get the ears to go through a machine that was de- 
signed to keep the ears back. The husking rolls are made small for the 
purpose of snapping off the ears, while feed cutter rolls are made large or 
with pegs to grasp the ears. We have found it next to impossible to ad- 
just the husking rolls so they will not snap off the ears and still give the 
necessary draft for feeding the machine. Last season many farmers who 
used the husking machines for silo filling were forced to allow the machine 
to husk out the preen ears. Now this is a very wasteful thing to do, as 
there is no better nor cheaper way of handling those ears than in the silo. 

There is but one way of making a satisfactory use of the combined 
husker and shredder for silo filling — that is, get a machine with two sets 
of feed rolls, one small set for husking, and for silo filling one must have 
a large roll that will grasp the ears, or a small roll covered with pegs of the 
feed cutter style. One thing is certain — the same arrangement will not 



196 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

work for both husking out the ears and cutting them for the silo, and one 
will do well to steer clear of the machine agent who advises to the con- 
trary. 

ELEVATORS VS. BLOWERS. 

Formerly all feed cutters were provided with sprocket wheel and chain 
elevators for elevating the cut fodder. Recently many firms have dis- 
placed their elevators with blowers. They are much more convenient 
than the elevators providing they are substantially made and have the 
necessary force to blow the fodder to the top of the silo. Many purchasers 
have been recently disappointed by getting machines that would not blow 
the fodder over 20 feet high, hence it is wise to exercise caution in 
selecting a blower. 

SIZE OF CUTTER. 

The size of feed cutter mouth should be large enough to take a good 
sized bundle of corn, for when it is necessary to divide the bundle the feed- 
ing becomes very slow and tiresome. 

POINTERS ON SILO FILLING. 

Don't fill the silo until the corn begins to glaze or you will have sour 
ensilage. 

Don't allow the fodder to wilt badly before putting into the silo, or 
it will lose much of its succulence and not thoroughly pack. 

Cut fine and pack well to exclude the air, as air promotes decomposi- 
tion. 

Do the best part of the tramping about the edge. 

if you are without silo experience, don't try experiments, but take 
advice straight from those who have succeeded. 

Keep the elevator chain very tight, as a loose chain is liable to jump 
sprockets and cause a bad wreck before the power can be stopped. 

Don't wait for the dew to dry off nor stop for a rain while filling silo, 
if you can keep the men at work, for water does no harm. 

If possible, leave the top of the silo open after filling, as a frequent 
wetting maintains a damp surface mold, that excludes the air. If it is 
impossible to leave the top exposed, a frequent wetting and tramping 
down will be very beneficial. 

If your corn gets frosted or badly wilted, place a barrel above the foot 
of elevator, fill with water and make a small hole at the bottom that will 
allow enough water to escape to make the fodder heavy as it was while 
green. 



THE PHYSIOLOGY OF MILK SECRETION— WITH NOTES 

ON THE EFFECT OF FOODS, DRUGS, EXPOSURE, 

EXERCISE AND ABNORMAL BODILY 

CONDITION. 



BY A. W. BITTING, M. D. , INSPECTOR, CITY BOARD OF HEALTH, LABORATORY 
OP COMPARATIVE PATHOLOGY, INDIANA AGRICUL- 
TURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 

Lafayette, Ind. 

In reproduction among the higher animals, the offspring at birth are 
not sufficiently matured to be able to subsist alone; neither are they sur- 
rounded by food that is already prepared for them. It is therefore necessary 
that Nature should provide for a part or whole dependence upon the mother 
for subsistence, during such time as is required for development to a state 
capable of independent existence. As a means to this end we find a mam- 
mary gland in a very large group of animals, the secretion from which is 
known as milk, and is a perfect food. Milk contains all the nutriment 
required by a growing body, in proper proportions, in a palatable and easily 
digestible form. For these reasons persistent efforts have been made 
to domesticate animals and develop this function to the highest degree 
as a source of food for people. How successful these attempts have been 
is exemplified in the milking capacities of several animals now used for 
this purpose. Animals in a wild state furnish a quantity of milk only 
sufficient for the young, and only for such time as is necessary for their 
maintenance. Under domestication, the cow in particular, has been de- 
veloped to produce a quantity sufficient to support several offspring, and 
to keep up the secretion almost continuously. 

The mammary gland being an accessory organ of generation, it is 
but natural that it should be rudimentary at birth and without function. 
It remains in this condition until the reproductive function becomes active, 
at which time it begins to develop quite rapidly, and continues to do so 
until the end of the first period of gestation. Like other organs of the 
body, it grows with the general growth, and from usage. Its functional 
activity does not ordinarily begin until near the close of the period of 
gestation, reaches its maximum at from ten to fifteen days thereafter, and 

197 



198 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

then gradually declines and practically ceases in from six to ten months. 
If the gland should be examined at birth, a whitish fluid will be found in 
the ducts, but it is not true milk. True milk may occur however, at a very 
early date, and without the stimulus of pregnancy. A case as follows came 
under the notice of the writer. A farmer-gave a young calf to his son to feed 
and care for. The little fellow began going through the motions of milking 
his pet, and in the course of a few weeks surprised his father by producing 
a half pint of milk. While this is an exceptional quantity for a young calf, 
the observation has frequently been made that small quantities will be 
present in the udders of calves that suckle each other while being weaned. 
Gabby reports the case of a heifer that had never showed signs of oestrum, 
suddenly developing a large udder and was milked constantly for three 
years. 

The male is possessed of a rudimentary mammary gland, but the writer 
is not aware that it ever develops functional activity under any form of 
stimulus in the lower animals. 

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MILK. 

The first secretion of the mammary gland before or immediately after 
birth, is an acrid, viscous, yellowish fluid, having slightly alkaline reaction 
and a specific gravity greater than water. It is called colostrum, and 
immediately precedes the true milk secretion. Colostrum differs from 
milk in that it contains a higher per cent of total solids, largely of an al- 
buminoid character, also in the abundance of mineral salts. The albuminoid 
substance is present in the form of small organized bodies, varying in size 
from a small fat globule to five or six times the size of large fat globules, 
and are known as colostrum corpuscles. These colostrum corpuscles are 
the cells which have been lying quiescent in the alveoli of the gland. Upon 
the sudden development of functional activity in the gland, these are 
swept away. The increased albuminoid content is so marked that it may 
be detected by simply heating, as well as by the more delicate chemical 
methods. The fat, the casein and milk sugar are present in less quantity 
than in normal milk. The taste is slightly acid, the odor strongly animal, 
and sometimes putrescent. The effect upon the body is as a mild cathartic. 
The transition from colostrum to milk is gradual, requiring from three to 
six days. If a cow be milked constantly, no colostrum, or only a slight 
quantity, will be present, showing that it is the result of the resting of the 
cells, and not a special product. 

Milk is the normal secretion of the mammary gland. It is a true 
emulsion, an opaque, bluish white or yellowish white liquid, slightly heavier 
and more viscous than water, is nearly neutral, possessed of a slight animal 
odor and a pleasant sweetish taste. 

The odor of milk is due to the extremely small particles of fat, casein 
and insoluble ash held in suspension. Each species of animal has its peculiar 
odor, and in addition it may be affected to some degree by the feed. The 
fat gives a yellowish tint and the casein and ash the opalescent appearance 



PHYSIOLOGY OF MILK SECRETION. 199 

By many, yellowishness is regarded as an indication of richness. While 
yellowish milk is usually rich, it does not necessarily follow that white milk 
may not be rich. The yellowish character is to a certain extent also a 
breed characteristic. The bluish color has the effect of neutralizing the 
yellow and making the whole have a whiter appearance than it otherwise 
would. 

The specific gravity of milk varies from 1.029 to 1.035, the average 
being 1.032. The variation is with the per cent, of total solids present 
and not with the per cent, of fat. A very high per cent, of fat will have 
the effect of lowering the specific gravity, but the relation between the spe- 
cific gravity and fat is not sufficiently close to warrant using the former 
in estimating the latter. „ 

The viscosity of milk is greater than that of water, on account of the 
character of the solids it contains, and especially upon the state of aggrega- 
tion of the fat globules. 

The reaction of milk is variable. The milk of the herbivora is generally 
described as normally alkaline, but at times it is also said to be possessed 
of an amphigenic reaction, that is both alkaline and acid. In 1892, Pro- 
fessor Huston of this station, made a series of experiments to determine 
the reaction of milk, and obtained an acid reaction in all cases. His 
method differed from those usually described and is as follows: To 25 c. c. 
of milk 5 c. c. of normal H. CI. solution was added to get a positive acid 
reaction, then titrating with one-half normal potassic hydrate solution until 
a neutral reaction occurred. In freshly drawn milk (28 samples) it re- 
quired .01648 c. c. of normal potassic hydrate to neutralize 1 c. c. of warm 
milk, or .01694 c. c. to neutralize the same quantity of cooled milk. 
The acidity of milk after standing, is from changes which it undergoes 
through bacterial fermentation. 

The milk of all animals shows essentially the same constituents, and 
analysis shows that these apparently differ only in the relative proportion 
of the several constituents present, a condition analogous to the body fat. 

The composition of milk is of a very complex character. It consists 
of a mixture containing water, proteids, carbohydrates, organic and in- 
organic acids, and animal salts. Minute quantities of ammonia, urea, 
hypoxanthin, chyme, chyle, biliverdin, cholestrin, mucin, lecithin, kreatin, 
leucin and tyrosin are sometimes present. 

A much used classification is as follows: Water, fats, albuminoids 
and ash. All the constituents taken together, except the water are known 
as milk solids. These comprise from 12 to 15 per cent, of the total. Vieth 
compiled the results of 120,540 analyses, covering a period of eleven 
years and found the average per cent, of solids in milk to be as follows: 

Total solids 12.9 

Solids not fat 8.8 

Fat 4.1 



200 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



The solids exist in milk in solution, in semi -solution and in suspension. 
Analyses of cows' milk, as quoted by Wing, 1 are given in table 1. 

TABLE 1. 



Substances. 


American 

(Babcock) 


English 

(Oliver) 


German 

(Fleischman) 


Freuch 
(Cornevin) 


Water ..... 


87.17 
3.69 
3.02 

.55 
4.88 

.71 


87.60 
3.25 
3.40 

.45 
4.55 

.75 


87.75 
3.40 
2.80 

.70 
4.60 

.75 


87.75 


Fat 


3.30 


Casein 

Albumen. 


3.00 


Sugar 


4.80 


Ash 


.75 







Peter Collier of the New York Experiment Station made analyses of 
milk during one entire period of lactation, from several breeds of cows, 
with the following results: 

TABLE 2. 

ANALYSES OF COWS' MILK AS GIVEN BY COLLIER. 2 



Water 



o Q- 



Fat 


o 
5' 


Milk 
Sugar 


Ash 


o 
3 


3.46 


3.39 


4.84 


.735 


.540 


3.57 


3.43 


5.33 


.696 


.543 


5.61 


3.91 


5.15 


.743 


.618 


3.55 


3.39 


5.01 


.698 


.533 


5.12 


3.61 


5.11 


.753 


.570 


4.15 


3.76 


5.07 


.760 


.595 


4.24 


3.50 


5.05 


.731 


.534 



^■< 



Holstein 

Ayrshire 

Jersey 

American Holderness . 

Guernsey 

Devon 

Average 



132 
252 
238 
124 



87.62 
86.95 
S4.60 
87 . 35 
85.39 



112 
172 



86.26 
86.37 



12.39 
13.06 
15.40 
12.63 
14.60 
13.77 
13.64 



9.07 
9.35 

9.80 
9.08 
9.47 
9.60 
9.40 



22.65 
18.40 
14.07 
13.40 
16.00 
12.65 
16.20 



1 Milk and its Products. H. H. Wing, 1897. 

2 New York State Experiment Station, Rept. 1891. 



PHYSIOLOGY OF MILK SECRETION. 201 

According to Koenig, the limits of variation as collected from about 
800 analyses taken from all parts of the world are as follows: 

Maximum. Minimum. 

Water 90 . 69 80 . 32 

Fat 6.47 1.67 

Casein 4 . 23 1 . 79 

Albumen 1 . 44 .25 

Sugar 6 . 03 2.11 

Ash 1.21 .35 

While the range of variation seems considerable, some of the constitu- 
ents, notably that of fat, may show even greater variation, in milk secreted 
by normal, healthy cows. Babcock found the milk of a single cow giving 
a small quantity, contained as high as 10 per cent, of fat. He further 
states that no analysis showing more than 9 per cent, of fat is recorded 
from a cow giving more than 15 pounds of milk per day. 

When milk is examined under the microscope, it appears as a clear 
liquid in which are suspended an immense number of spherical bodies 
that are of a light yellowish appearance and are highly refractive. These 
constitute the fatty part of the milk and are known as milk globules. Their 
small size and the viscous nature of the milk serum, tend to prevent the 
coalescence of the globules. The size of these globules varies in all milks 
varying from 2 mmm. up to 30 mmm.'s in diameter (1 mmm. equals 1 — 
25,000 of an inch). The size also varies with the milk drawn, whether 
it be first, middle or last drawn, as may be seen by the following records 
given in table 3. TAB I E 3 

NUMBER OF GLOBULES OF EACH SIZE PER THOUSAND GLOBULES. 



Size in Mmm's 


ist milk 


Middle milk 


Last milk 


Whole milk 


Skiin milk 


4 


95 


18 


68 


70 


365 


6 


220 


90 


153 


190 


425 


8 


427 


215 


238 


319 


120 


12 


152 


443 


204 


180 


54 


16 


67 


ISO 


127 


121 


24 


20 


20 


54 


85 


76 


12 


24 


10 


00 


25 


19 




28 


9 


00 


00 







As the period of lactation advances the globules increase in number 
and the average size diminishes, so that after several months the total 



202 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

number of globules per cubic centimeter may be two or three times as 
great as at first, but the size correspondingly smaller and the per cent, 
of fat approximately the same. 

P. Collier records 1 the results of a large number of determinations 
of the size of the globules in the milk of different breeds. The size of the 
globules diminishes as the period of lactation advances, that is the relative 
number of large globules diminishes and the smaller globules increase. 
He found 2 that the relative number was 100 in the first quarter, 137 in 
the second quarter, 149 in the third quarter, and 187 in the fourth quarter 
of the period of lactation. That is, a given quantity of milk contained 
89 per cent, more fat globules in the last quarter than in the first. 

O. Schnellenberger 3 found essentially the same thing, and estimated 
that a liter of milk contained 2,480 millions of globules at the beginning 
and 4,449 millions of globules at the end of the period of lactation. 

F. W. Woll agrees with the previously cited writers and further adds 
that age has no apparent effect, and that the morning milk contains more 
large globules than the evening milk. 

The milk from certain breeds, as Jerseys and Guernseys, is charac- 
terized by large globules, while that of other breeds, as Ayrshires and Hol- 
steins, usually contain small globules. There is, however, a wide indi- 
vidual difference in all breeds, Jerseys sometimes producing small globules 
and Holsteins large ones. In normal milk the globules are uniformly dis- 
tributed throughout the whole mass, but to a greater or less extent col- 
lected in groups. For a long time it was thought that each cell was sur- 
rounded by its own membrane, the membrane of Acherson. This mem- 
brane was supposed to be derived from the cell of protoplasm. According 
to Babcock no such membrane exists, and he is supported in this view by 
nearly all recent investigators. It is now considered that milk is a nat- 
ural emulsion, and that what appears to be a membrane is not different 
from what is seen in other emulsions, having the fat similarly divided. 

The fat of milk is very complex, being a mixture of six or eight distinct 
fats, some being volatile and others not. The following in Table 4 is 
the composition submitted by Wiley. 1 

TABLE 4. 

Composition of Butter. 

insoluble fats. 

Olein 42 . 21 Oleic acid 40 . 40 

Stearin and palmatin 50 . 00 Stearic and palmic acid 47 . 50 

92.21 87.90 



1 New York Experiment Station, Report 1891. 

2 Experiment Station Record, Volume V., p. 95. 

3 Experiment Station Record, Volume V. p. 95. 

4 Principles and practice of Agricultural Analysis. H. W. Wiley, 1S97. 



PHYSIOLOGY OP MILK SECRETION. 203 

SOLUBLE FATS. 

Butyrin , 4 . 67 Butyric acid 3 . 49 

Caproin 3 . 02 Caproic acid 2 .40 

Caprylic acid and 

Caprylin and Rutin 10 Rutic acid SO 

7.79 6.69 

The insoluble solids constitute a little more than 92 per cent, of the total 
fat, are stable and suffer little from the organized f erments. They are taste- 
kss and nearly neutral. They are composed of glycerol united with fatty 
acids. The peculiarity of these fats lies in the proportion of the different ones 
present. The presence of a greater proportion of stearin raises the melt- 
ing point, while a high proportion of olein lowers it. 

The proportion of these fats is fairly constant, but in the case of feed- 
ing cotton seed meal to cattle, the melting point of butter is raised and 
would seem to indicate that the per cent, of stearin was increased. No 
analyses are available to determine whether this is the case or not. 

The volatile fats constitute less than eight per cent, of the total fats 
in milk, but they are of great importance, as they impart the taste and 
odor and give the peculiar animal characteristics. They are probably more 
easily affected than any other constituent of milk. 

The casein is the chief proteid constituent of milk. It is insoluble in 
water and exists in milk in a semi-colloidal condition. It differs from other 
proteids in that it is coagulated by rennet and dilute acid, but not by heat. 

Albumen is the soluble proteid of milk, and is similar to blood albumen. 
It is coagulated by heat when subjected to a temperature of 175 to 180 
degrees Fahr. 

Lactose or milk sugar is a carbohydrate peculiar to milk, as it is found 
nowhere else. It differs from cane sugar in that it is less soluble in water, 
has less specific gravity, only a slightly sweetish taste, does not readily un- 
dergo alcoholic fermentation, but is easily broken up by lactic acid form- 
ing bacteria. 

Babcock and Russell have demonstrated that milk also contains an or- 
ganized enzyme, which will cause slow changes upon standing. Their studies 
have not been continued for a sufficient length of time to give it a full 
description. 

The organic acid is citric acid, and probably exists most often in com- 
bination with calcium and potassium. 

The ash or inorganic constituents of milk represent less than one per 
cent. They exist in compounds of sodium, magnesium, calcium, iron and 
phosphorus. 

These salts exist in soluble and insoluble states. The soluble salts 
are sodium chloride and potassium citrate, and the insoluble phosphates 
of magnesium, calcium, potassium and iron. 

It is also of interest to note in this connection that the inorganic matter 
in milk exists in the same relative proportions as in the new born. The 



204 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

salts in milk do not exist in the same relative proportion as in the blood 
which also tends to disprove the theory so long maintained that. the separa- 
tion of milk is largely a process of transudation. 

QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF MILK SECRETED. 

Wild animals secrete only a sufficient quantity of milk to meet the 
needs of their young until they become sufficiently developed to secure 
their own food. Under the influence of domestication the functional ac- 
tivity of the gland has been greatly developed both in the quantity produced 
and in the duration of the period of lactation. In all good dairy cows 
the period should extend over several months, and in some it is practically 
continuous. The average yield per cow is less than 4,000 pounds per 
annum, but in good dairies it is more nearly 6,000 pounds, and in individuals 
it will greatly exceed that amount. In one instance it was over 30,000 
pounds. 

The flow of milk is greatest shortly after parturition and gradually 
decreases until the close of lactation. 

As milk is dependent upon the metabolism of the mammary gland, 
this is in turn dependent upon the quantity of blood passing through it. 
For large milking capacity it is necessary that there should be large gland- 
ular development, but more important still, a large circulation of blood 
in the part. The cow must receive an ample supply of food and have the 
capacity to eat, digest, assimilate and turn into blood the elements necessary 
to form milk. Some time after parturition there is a tendency toward 
a shrinkage of the vessels of the udder, and this becomes more marked 
as the period of gestation advances. All the excess nutrition of the body 
is needed for the developing foetus, and hence a lessening of the functional 
activity of the gland. That pregnancy is an influence tending to diminish 
milk secretion is demonstrated by the fact that spayed cows will continue 
to produce milk a long time, even two to five years, during which time the 
quantity and quality make a very gradual decrease. While pregnancy 
has its influence upon the period of lactation there are other factors that 
are of even greater importance and cannot be overlooked, the most important 
of which is the regularity and thoroughness of the emptying of the gland. 
If the milking process be done at irregular intervals or incompletely, the 
activity of the gland soon ceases. Shortage of feed or water, or disease 
may result in immediate cessation of secretion. The ordinary period of 
lactation is from nine to ten months throughout the life of the animal. 
The first and second periods are somewhat shorter. 

The quantity and quality of milk secreted each day is fairly constant. 
Variations do occur within certain limits and may be due to numerous 
causes. In general, the evening milk contains about a half per cent, more 
fat than morning milk, but the latter exceeds the former by about 25 per 



PHYSIOLOGY OF MILK SECRETION. 205 

cent, in quantity. An attempt has been made to explain this by attributing 
it to the fall in temperature during the night, requiring some of the fat to 
keep up the body heat and to the lessened activity of the animal. Fleisch- 
mann and Vieth experimented upon a German herd of 119 cows, and found 
that the fat in the evening milk not only varied within wider limits than 
in the morning's milk, but also observed that from March until July, the 
period of greatest activity of the gland, that the morning milk was richer 
in fats than the evening milk. The difference in the quantity of milk 
drawn morning and evening is due in part to the greater length of time 
allowed to elapse between the evening and morning milking. This may 
possibly also account for some of the differences in the percentage of fat. 
In general the milk richest in fat is that drawn after the shortest period, 
and this has been shown to be true in cases where cows have been milked 
three or four times a day. After the third or fourth week of lactation the 
percentage of fat in the milk remains nearly constant until the seventh 
or eighth month, or until the quantity of milk begins to rapidly diminish. 

The daily variations in the milk are sometimes considerable. Such 
variations may be ascribed to changes in the weather, temperature, food, 
surroundings, indisposition, etc. 

The monthly variations in the quantity and quality of the milk are less 
marked, than the daily variations. Cows coming fresh in the spring rapidly 
better the quality of their milk, beginning about five months after calving, 
but cows coming in in the fall maintain a fairly even quality throughout their 
entire period of lactation. The quantity of milk is augmented when cattle 
are first turned out to pasture and during drouth, but this must be ascribed 
to food conditions, and not to seasonal variations. The richest milk is 
produced after the seventh month. 

The yearly changes in quantity are slight. The increase in the second 
and third producing years is marked, but after that it is rarely more than 
3 per cent. The changes are so dependent upon feeding that no conclusions 
can be drawn upon this point. 

The percentage of the fat in milk is affected by the age of the cow. The 
young cow produces a milk poorer in fat than during vigorous middle age. 
The fat may fall to a very low per cent in old age. 

There is considerable difference in the percentage of fat in the milk 
taken at the different parts of the milking. Schmidt made complete analyses 
of first drawn milk and last drawn milk, and found that this difference 
was almost wholly due to the fat, there being eight times more fat in the end 
milk than in the fore milk. We have made many tests of the fat and found 
the per cent, to be about five times as great in the end as in the fore milk. 
The explanation offered for this is that the fat at first lodges or adheres 
to the lactiferous ducts, and that in reality a separation of cream begins 
in the udder, and this fat would as far as circumstances permitted, seek 
to float on the denser fluid in the cisterns and teats. The udder of a cow 
killed immediately after milking showed on examination, that the ducts 



206 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

contained a residue of rich milk and it is probable that the whole of the fat 
is never drawn at each milking. 

There has been a large number of theories advanced as to the methods 
by which milk is elaborated, most of them based upon the assumption 
that it is a comparatively simple chemical and physical problem. All the 
earlier theories were based upon such assumption, the physiologist regarding 
the mammary gland as an organ to separate certain elements from the blood 
in definite proportions as milk. It was regarded that the process was largely 
one of transudation through a special membrane, on the same principle 
that exchange of gases by osmosis, occurs rapidly in the tissues of the lungs. 1 1 
was assumed that the fat of the food, and the water and the salts taken 
into the alimentary canal were absorbed and taken into the blood and then 
eliminated by the mammary gland. The milk serum was regarded as 
escaped blood serum, and that the other products were derived from the 
blood or epithelial cells. The gland was assumed to be a semi-passive organ, 
receiving the milk already prepared, and only requiring elimination 
in the proper proportions. 

It was upon the foregoing assumption, that the great majority of 
experiments have been made for the purpose of augmenting the quantity 
or quality of the milk. If this assumption were correct, then the quantity 
or quality of milk produced would only be limited by the ability to digest 
and assimilate food. 

Probably the most satisfactorily planned and executed experiment 
to settle this theory was made by Jordan and Jenter. 1 The object 
was to determine whether the fat in the milk was derived from the fat in 
the food. During the entire experiment of fifty-nine days, analyses were 
taken of the feeds and milk and the urine and faeces collected to determine 
where everything had gone. For two weeks the cow (a grade Jersey) was 
fed on ten pounds of timothy hay, six pounds of corn meal, five pounds 
of ground oats and one pound of wheat gluten. Then the same foods 
were fed with all or very nearly all the fat extracted. For a short time after 
the change there was a decided variation in the milk solids, but this was 
soon overcome, and the milk regained its normal composition and main- 
tained it with only slight variations, that could not be assigned to any cause, 
throughout the entire period. The milk fat yield for the seventy-five days 
was 62.9 pounds and the food fat contained 11.6 pounds, of which only 
5.7 pounds were digested. This extra fat could not have come from the 
previously stored body fat, because in the beginning of the experiment 
the cow was thin in flesh and gained forty-seven pounds of body weight, 
and was judged to be a fatter cow at the end than at the beginning. The 
milk fat could not have come from the protein, because during the fifty - 
nine consecutive days, 38.8 pounds of milk fat was secreted and the urine 
nitrogen was equal to about 33 pounds of protein. According to any 



1 Bulletin 132 New York State Experiment Station. 



PHYSIOLOGY OF MILK SECRETION. 207 

accepted method of interpretation, not over 17 pounds of fat could have 
been produced from this amount of neutralized protein. For the greater 
part of the milk fat, they could draw no other conclusions than that it 
is formed partially at least, from the carbohydrates. Several experimenters 
have proven that body fat may be formed from carbohydrates, and the 
foregoing experiment only strengthens the analogy between milk and body 
fat in this mode of formation. This experiment completely disproves the 
transudation theory, as the conditions under which it was conducted 
were wholly under control. It further offers an explanation for the results 
of many other experiments conducted along the same line, but not so com- 
pletely carried out. 

The transudation theory also meets a serious set back in the fact that 
the fats in the milk are unlike the fats in the food or body, and that casein 
and milk sugar are not found in the blood or the gland itself. 

Another theory that has had many supporters, is that milk is the result 
of the separating of part of its constituents, as the water serum and salt 
from the blood, and part due to a fatty degeneration of the cells lining 
the alveolar cavities, the fat globules being due to the degenerated cells 
and the casein due to the undegenerated portion of the cells. This theory 
is actively supported by many of the best physiologists. Smith, after 
examining all the phases of milk secretion, sums up the whole as follows: 
"The process of milk secretion may therefore be regarded as a process of 
metabolism of the epithelial cells, which undergo decomposition, and dis- 
charge the resulting products into the excretory duets." He regards " fat 
as a product of fatty degeneration of the protoplasmic cell contents, for 
it is not increased but actually diminished by an increase of- fat in the foods. 
On the other hand an increase of proteids in the diet will cause an increase 
in milk fat. In microscopic examination of the epithelial cells of the mam- 
mary gland, oil globules may be actually seen to increase in size and number, 
until often the protoplasmic content becomes almost entirely replaced 
by oil globules which entirely agree in their characteristics with the oil 
globules found in milk." In feeding animals on a highly albuminous diet, 
they increase in weight and produce more fat in the milk, at the same time 
showing that they cannot be filling the pail from adipose tissue. However 
in herbivora not enough albuminoids are being taken up to account for 
this fact, so that some must be derived from the blood. 

P. Collier made an investigation 1 to determine the number of fat 
globules found inmilk inagiven time. He made his observations on a large 
number of cows and found on an average each secreted seven-tenths of 
a pound or nearly 19.6 cubic inches of milk per hour, and that there were 
152 fat globules in each .0001 cubic inch of milk. He concluded that this 
was equivalent to secreting 136,000,000 fat globules per second. He 



] New York State Experiment Station, Rept. 1S91. 



208 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

duplicated his work on twenty-three other cows, and found they secreted 
on an average of 138,200,000 fat globules per second. Collier also recog- 
nized the fact that milk contains ingredients that must be the result of 
some special activity, as the casein and milk sugar are not present in the 
blood, and the fat only in traces, thus precluding the possibility of being 
derived by transudation. A good cow may produce two and a half kilograms 
of albuminoids, fat and sugar, (five pounds). The weight of the total solids 
of a gland producing that amount of milk solids is only about 1.16 kilograms 
(two and one-fourth pounds) which would necessitate a complete renewal 
of tissue 2.09 times a day. He might have added that the epithelial cells 
constitute only a small part of the gland structure, and it would therefore 
require even more rapid renewal. This would require an almost incredible 
cell growth, so that we are forced to assume that although the growth and 
disappearance of certain cells is of the greatest importance, the organic 
substances in milk are modified from substances in the blood and lymph 
into the forms we find them in milk, by the functional activity of the cells. 
The estimates upon the rate of cell multiplication as made by Dr. Collier 
are only approximate, but are certainly near enough to the truth to warrant 
drawing the conclusion that fat is not the result of fatty degeneration of 
the cells. In fact such a process is incompatible with our knowledge of 
the physiology of cell reproduction or disintegration. 

Soxhlet has recently advanced the theory 1 that milk is the result of 
the disorganization of tissues, either as according to Voit, of the milk glands 
themselves or, according to Rauber, of the white blood corpuscle. Thus 
according to Soxhlet the constituents of food cannot be directly converted 
into components of milk, but must first be used for the construction of 
some tissue and afterwards be decomposed and then utilized in the produc- 
tion of milk fat. A normal butter fat could then be produced by food de- 
void of fat, and feeding any kind of food devoid of «fat although rich in fat form- 
ing constituents, would not have the effect of changing the character of the 
milk fat present in milk. Abundant feeding with nutritive but non-fatty 
foods, could only increase the percentage of decomposing milk tissue. 
Carbohydrates could contribute to the body fat, but not to the milk fat, 
bceause they contribute nothing to the milk producing tissues, but on the 
contrary, when fed in conjunction with food poor in protein, they diminish 
the milk fat because the total diminishes the amount of nitrogenous food, 
that is, substances which produce tissue. It is only fat in food which renders 
the exclusive increase of milk fat possible, by causing a migration of body 
fat to the milk. 

A close examination of the theory, and the explanation given by 
Soxhlet, shows that it explains many phenomena that could not be explained 
by the transudation or cell disintegration theories. It must be admitted 



1 Journal Royal Agricultural Society, 3d Ser., Vol. Ill, pp. 655-662. 



PHYSIOLOGY OF MILK SECRETION. 209 

however, that it ignores any special constructive power in the gland itself, 
and treats milk as an excretory product. 

The latest theory is to regard milk as a product of metabolism of the 
cells of the mammary gland. It is in all essential characters a secretory 
product, and not an excretory product. In viewing the physiology of the 
formation of milk in such a light, it is only regarding it in the same way 
as saliva, gastric and pancreatic juices. It may be argued that these glands 
secrete a special product to be used in the animal economy, while milk is 
not so used. All excretory glands, as the kidneys, liver and sweat glands, 
hnd their material already prepared in the blood, the result of activity in 
other parts of the body, and they serve as a means of eliminating it. Secre- 
tory glands, as the pancreas, salivary glands, etc., do not find their active 
principles in the blood, but construct them within their own especial cells. 
The mammary gland docs not find fat, casein and lactose in the blood, 
but constructs them within its own tissues. The recognition of the mammary 
gland as an organ having' a special function will explain fully all the dif- 
ficulties met in trying to reconcile all other theories with the facts as they 
are observed. 

The theory of special cell metabolism is supported by the behavior 
of the gland, viewed from an anatomical standpoint. The cells differ 
when at rest and when active. When at rest the cells lining the alveoli 
lie flat and close to the wall. Their nuclei are small and spindleform. Dur- 
ing a period of activity they are much enlarged, filling nearly the entire 
cavity, and the nuclei are prominent. The cells may be seen in all stages 
of reproduction, and in these particulars the gland shows the same char- 
acters as seen in the secreting glands already mentioned. 

This theory is further sustained by the antecedents of the milk. When 
fat is taken into the intestine and assimilated, it no longer has an existence 
as fat, but is broken up into various combinations. Fat as deposited in 
the body is not the same as the fat in the food. The proportions of olein 
and stearin have been changed to meet the peculiarity of the animal. Where 
the analytic and synthetic process take place is not known. It is now 
recognized that it is not necessary that the fat in the body be derived from 
the fat of the food, but that the carbohydrates supply the necessary ma- 
terials. With these proofs of synthetic process going on, to produce body 
fat, it is not unreasonable to suppose that a similar process may take place 
in the formation of milk. 

The milk sugar or lactose is a product of metabolic activity of the proto- 
plasm of the secreting cells of the mammary gland. This particular form 
of sugar occurs nowhere else in the body. It is a typical carbohydrate, 
and is found in the milk of animals fed exclusively upon meat, thus show- 
ing that the carbohydrates of the food are wholly unnecessary. Of all 
the constituents the milk sugar is least affected by external conditions. 

The casein of milk is thought to be formed the same as the fat, although 
authorities differ on this point. The evidence seems to be in favor of this 



210 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

theory, for at the beginning and at the end of lactation the albumin which, 
is normally less than one-seventh of the casein, is actually in excess of it, 
and albumin is a normal constituent of both blood and milk. Smith says 
casein is developed at the expense of the albuminous cell contents, since it 
is absent from the blood. The alkali albuminate is derived from the break- 
ing down of the protoplasm and nuclein, which is always found as a part 
of the casein and is derived from the nucleus which disappears in the process 
of secretion. The proportion of casein in the milk is increased by greater 
perfection in the activity of the cells. In the formation of colostrum, 
the albuminoid matter is greatly in excess of that after secretion is well 
established, and with the decrease of albumin, there is a proportionate 
increase in casein. A ferment has been extracted from the mammary gland 
which will convert albumin into casein. 

The water, no doubt, passes directly from the capillaries into the milk 
follicles, and carrying with it the mineral constituents in solution. 

The functions of the mammary gland are performed involuntarily. 
There seems to be some connection between the mammary gland and the 
central nervous system, but how much control can be exercised by will, 
has not been determined. Locally the stimulus seems to be the empty 
milk duct, for when the ducts become full, the secretion is partially 
checked, but is considerably stimulated during the process of emptying. 

INFLUENCES AFFECTING MILK PRODUCTION. 

Breed. — Heredity has a most marked effect upon milk production. 
The different breeds are the result of the selection of animals of certain 
types, and some have been selected to produce very rich milk, others large 
quantities of milk and in others no attention has been paid to this quality. 
The difference in the quality of milk due to breed, includes not only the 
amount of fat, the color and melting point of the fat, but also the size of 
the milk globules. In some breeds the globules are large, in some they are 
small, and in some they may be mixed, large and small. While the breed 
has a most marked influence, there is also considerable variation of the in- 
dividuals in each breed. 

No figures are available, that give a good index to the amount of milk 
and the period of lactation in the different breeds of cattle in this country. 
The only animals of which we have record are individuals mainly owned by 
Experiment Stations, or in breeding establishments, which are of more than 
average in quality. 

Heredity. — As a breed represents only the characters of individuals 
fixed by selection for successive generations, it is but natural that we should 
find like influences in families, but in a less marked degree. Heredity has 
its effect in stamping individuality, both in the quantity and quality, and no 
stronger proof is needed than the records of the noted families of the breeds. 

Age. — Age will influence the quantity of milk. From two until five 
years there is a gradual increase in the quantity, after which time it remains 



FOOD EFFECT ON MILK SECRETION. 211 

about the same during the periods of activity, until the age of eleven or 
twelve years, and then it decreases. 

Pregnancy. — This state always has the effect of decreasing the flow, 
first due to a tendency for the body to take on flesh for a time after con- 
ception, and in a later period the nutrition is utilized for the foetus. It is 
in respect to the period of lactation that individuals show the widest varia- 
tion. With many, the effect of again becoming pregnant is so slight as 
to be scarcely noticeable, and with others it is so great as to interfere with 
the usefulness of the animal. 

THE INFLUENCE OF FOOD UPON MILK SECRETION. 
During the period when physiologists attempted to explain practically 
all changes upon chemical and physical bases, the teaching was that milk 
resulted from a separation of its constituent elements from the blood, the 
separation taking place in the udder. Upon this teaching the belief became 
fixed that the quantity and quality of the milk secretion was in a measure 
dependent upon the amount and kind of food the animals received. The 
influence of this teaching is still potent; many elaborately planned experi- 
ments have been made by individuals and Government Experiment Sta- 
tions to determine the truth or falsity of this view. The results have been 
very confusing, unless all the data be known. It must be admitted that a 
large per cent, of practical dairymen believe they can take poor or average 
cows, and by good feed and management greatly increase the quantity and 
better the quality of the milk produced. The results at Experiment Sta- 
tions have not been wholly in accord with this view. No doubt but that the 
dairyman taking a cow in poor condition, scarcely receiving sufficient food 
to maintain the body nutrition, and giving her good care and abundant 
feed, will be able to increase both the yield and quality. The Experiment 
Station or person who takes an animal in a good state of nutrition, and 
feeds highly, may still further increase the flow or maintain it, and may 
improve the quality for a short time but not permanently. The error too 
often committed by the dairyman in drawing a proper conclusion, is, first, 
testing the milk for quantity and quality which is below the normal for the 
animal because of her impoverished condition, and second, in drawing the 
conclusions from the temporary change occurring soon after the change in 
food. The experiment stations, as a rule, use only well nourished cattle, 
and consequently do not find such marked changes, and furthermore they 
keep the records for a longer period of time, so that the conclusions are not 
biased by the incomplete data obtained from the temporary changes. 
Among those who believe that the qttality of milk is practically a fixed 
character in any given individual and not subject to more than temporary 
variation by the feeding, are G. H. Whitcher and S. M. Babcock. 1 The latter 
sums up the matter as follows: — "My opinion is, that the quality of milk so far 
as it is measured by the per cent, of fat, depends almost entirely upon 



1 Rural New Yorker, July 15, 1891. 



212 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

individual peculiarities of the animal and so long as sufficient food is sup- 
plied and consumed, very little depends upon the kind of food. External 
conditions, which often are not apparent, seem to have a greater influence 
upon the richness of milk than the kind of feed. This is shown by the 
fact that the daily variations in the per cent, of fat in the milk from the 
same cow, when no change has been made in the ration are often greater 
than occur when a radical change in the food is made." Furthermore, the 
same ration will affect different animals differently. According to this theory, 
the man who endeavors to keep up the standard of his milk by careful feeding 
cannot attain that end, a'nd has no advantage over his neighbor who uses 
the cheapest ration possible. 

According to other writers, as Youatt 1 and Wing 2 the food has consid- 
erable influence upon the quality, but not to the same extent as the quantity. 
In fact, with cows kept under favorable conditions, with an abundant 
supply of food, it is hardly possible to increase the proportion of fat to other 
solids by a change in the food. While the total solids cannot be easily 
affected, the character of the constituents may be influenced and this is 
notably so of the fat. For example linseed meal, gluten meal and certain 
other foods make a soft oily fat, while cottonseed meal, the seeds of the 
various legumes, and wheat bran make a hard fat. The constituents,, 
other than fat, are not so easily affected, when cows are fed on watery 
herbage, brewers' grains or other food containing a high percentage of water, 
the milk becomes poorer in solids. The explanation offered for this last 
condition is based on the assumption of a more watery character of the blood, 
due to excess of water in the food. A poor, watery diet impoverishes the 
blood, and leads to the production of watery milk. 

The assumption of a watery diet producing a watery milk is not fully 
in accord with close observation, as it has been found that the fat content 
is not diminished by turning cattle from dry feed to pasture. It is in line, 
however, with the statements so frequently accredited to health boards, 
that cattle fed on brewers' grains and starch refuse, have a lower fat con- 
tent in the milk than those using dry feeds. My own analyses do not 
show sufficient difference to be able to decide from the milk test alone 
which dairy uses sloppy feed and which uses dry feed and pasture. The 
average of a large number of analyses from dairies using slop feed shows 
about one-half per cent, less fat than dairies using dry feed and pas- 
ture. No factor other than food seems to account for the difference. 

As this phase of the subject has received so much attention from station 
workers, the following summaries of experiments may be of special inter- 

est - COMPARISONS OF GRAINS AND BY-PRODUCTS. 

Corn Meal and Shorts. An experiment was conducted by the New 
Hampshire Experiment Station, 3 to compare corn meal and shorts. The 

1 Complete Grazier, 1893. 2 Milk and its products, 1S97. 

3 Bulletin No. 8, New Hampshire Experiment Station. G. H. Whitcher. 



FOOD EFFECT ON MILK SECRETION. 213 

nutritive ratios were 1 to G.S and 1 to 6.1 respectively. A difference of .34 
of a pound of milk per day was realized in favor of the corn meal. 

Corn Meal and Cottonseed Meal. The same station 1 found 
that a ration with corn meal, having a nutritive ratio of 1 to 5.5 and one 
with cottonseed meal, 1 to 4.5 gave a gain of .44 of a pound of milk more 
per day per cow in favor of the cottonseed meal. Of the five cows one gained 
on the wide ratio, two remained the same and two gained on the narrow 
ratio. 

Corn Meal and Gluten Meal. Corn meal was used in a ration 
having a nutritive ratio of 1 to 9.2, and the gluten meal at 1 to 2.4. This 
resulted in a decrease in the flow of milk each time the change was made 
from the narrow to the wide ration. Gluten meal also made a softer butter 
than the corn meal. 2 

Bran and Oats. Have about equal values. 3 At the Wisconsin 
Experiment Station, two feeding experiments were carried on for the pur- 
pose of ascertaining the value of ground oats and bran for milk production. 
The cows were fed the same quantities by weight of bran and oats, eight 
pounds daily per head in the first experiment, and ten pounds daily in 
the second, with an addition of corn meal, hay, corn silage, and corn fodder. 
It was found that the cows invariably did better on the oats. The fat 
content on the average remained the same. 

Barley and Oats, and a mixture of palm nut meal, rape seed cake 
and sunflower seed cake, were compared in co-operative experiments in 
Denmark. There was no change in the chemical composition of the milk 
from the different rations, although the quantity of the milk increased 
with the heavier oil cake feeding. 

Gluten Meal and Cottonseed Meal. Gluten meal was found 
equal to cottonseed meal when fed in such quantities as to make the digestible 
matter equal. 4 At the Massachusetts Station these feeds gave practically 
the same results. 

Gluten Meal and other Meals. Seventy cows were used in a 
test to determine the comparative value of gluten meal and corn meal 
and bran. 5 High grade gluten meal was found to have a higher feeding 
value than equal weights of corn meal and bran. The milk was slightly 
richer, but not sufficiently so to be of practical importance. The fat was 
disproportionately increased to other solids. 

Gluten Meal and Linseed Meal. Gluten meal and linseed meal 



1 Bulletin 8, New Hampshire Experiment Station. G. H. Whitcher. 

2 Bulletin No. 13, New Hampshire Experiment Station. A. H. Wood 

and C. L. Parsons. 

3 Report of the Maine Experiment Station, 1896. J. M. Bartlett. 

4 Report of the Maine Experiment Station, 1896. J. M. Bartlett. 

5 Bulletin 48, Vermont Experiment Station. J. L. Hills. 



214 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

were compared in feeding tests, and showed no marked difference in the 
quality of the milk. 1 

Gluten and Wheat Middlings. The nutritive ratio of the gluten 
feed was 1 to 7.7 and the middlings 1 to 8.4. The milk yield was in favor 
of the gluten feed. Only one cow was used in the experiment, and thus 
it becomes of very little value. 2 

Gluten and Shorts. The ratio of the gluten feed was 1 to 7.2, and 
of the shorts feed, 1 to 7.6, with slight advantage in favor of the gluten. 
Here again, only one cow was used. This was in connection with the 
previous experiment. 

Cottonseed Meal. Butter is not appreciably affected by cottonseed 
meal, unless that feed be made one-half or more of the grain ration. 3 Cotton- 
seed meal also made a butter which was very hard and difficult to churn. 4 

Cottonseed and Bran. Cottonseed had the effect of increasing 
the quantity of milk, but not the quality, when displacing bran in a diet. 
With cottonseed diet, the melting point of the butter was 99 degrees, and 
with the bran 93 degrees. This experiment was conducted upon 12 cows 
for 10 weeks. 5 

Cottonseed and Grains. Cottonseed had the effect of increasing 
the melting point from 95.33 degrees on a straight grain and hay diet, to 
105.44 degrees on a diet of cottonseed meal and beets, and decreasing the 
volatile acids from 14.41 parts to 10.15 parts in the fats. The quality of 
the milk was improved so that 21 pounds of milk produced a pound of 
butter against 22 and 23 pounds without the cottonseed meal. The color 
was also made whiter. 6 

Cottonseed. Steamed cottonseed gave better results than raw, and 
the cost was one-half less than cottonseed meal. Butter from the steamed 
seed feeding was better than that from the raw seed feeding. 7 

Sugar Meal, Corn and Cob Meal. — Sugar meal produced 8 per ceni 
greater yield of milk than corn and cob meal. Sugar meal produced 27 per 
cent, greater yield of butter fat. It also produced 14 per cent, greater 
yield of milk solids and 9 per cent, more solids not fat. Sugar meal produced 
.58 pounds of fat, an equivalent of 17 per cent, more than corn meal. 
Sugar meal also produced . 73 pound or 6 per cent, increase in total solids 



1 Report of the Mass. Experiment Station, 1891. 

2 Bulletin 8, New Hampshire Experiment Station. G. H. Whitcher. 

3 Bulletin 32, Iowa Experiment Station. C. F. Curtiss. 

4 Bulletin 13, New Hampshire Experiment Station. 

5 Bulletin 17, Penn. Agr. Experiment Station. Thomas F. Hunt. 

6 Bulletin 18, Texas Experiment Station. George W. Curtis. 

Bulletin 29 corroborates the thermal test. 

7 Bulletin 13, Mississippi Experiment Station. E. R. Lloyd. 



FOOD EFFECT ON MILK SECRETION. 215 

per hundred pounds over corn meal. Eight cows were used in a 60 day 
experiment to determine these points. 1 

Oils. — Cottonseed oil., corn oil, palm oil, eocoanut oil, cleo oil, stearin 
oil. These were fed to three cows for the period of fifteen days — a period 
too short from which to be able to draw positive conclusions. The au- 
thor's deductions were: 

1st. — That the first effect of an increase in fat in a cow's ration is to 
increase the per cent, of fat in the milk. 

2nd. — That with the continuance of the ration the tendency is for the 
milk to return to its normal condition. 

3rd. — That the increase in fat is not due to the oils but to the unnatural 
character of the ration. 

4th — That the results in this experiment tend to confirm the conclu- 
sion expressed in previous bulletins from this station, that the composition 
of cow's milk is determined by the individuality of the cow, and that al- 
though an unusual food may divert for a time the composition of the milk 
its effect is not continuous. 

Cottonseed Oil produced the hardest butter, and corn oil the 
softest. 2 

Tallow. Tallow was fed to ten different cows for a period of ten weeks: 
during six weeks each cow ate on an average of two pounds of rallow per 
day. No increase in milk fat followed. 3 

Milk. Feeding whole milk to two cows on pasture had the effect of 
keeping up the flow and the per cent, of fat. Skim milk did not do as 
well as whole milk, but showed some increase over no milk. 4 

Corn Fodder and Bean Vines. G. H. Whitcher found that by the 
feeding of a herd, six pounds of corn fodder to each daily, that he received 
217.54 pounds of milk, or an increase of 5.54 pounds daily over the same 
period during which five pounds of bean vines were being fed. He also 
substituted six pounds of millet for six pounds of corn fodder, and found 
an increase of . 35 of a pound, an amount so small that it does not mean any- 
thing one way or the other. 

Corn Fodder and Corn Silage have the same value. 5 At the Missouri 
Station the fodder fed cattle gave milk richer in fats and in solids. 6 

Corn Stover and Hay are of equal value. 7 Corn fodder has essentially 

1 Bulletin 14, Iowa Experiment Station. 

2 Bulletin 18, New Hampshire Experiment Station, A. H. Wood. 

3 Bulletin 92, Cornell University Experiment Station, H. H. Wing. 

4 Bulletin 17, Iowa Experiment Station, James Wilson and G. E. 

Patrick. 

5 Bulletin 105, New York Agr. Experiment Station, Van Slyke. 

6 Bulletin 8, Missouri Agr. Experiment Station. J. W. Sanborn. 

7 Report Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station, 1889, J. L. Hills. 



216 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

the same value as English hay. 1 Corn fodder produced slightly less milk, 
and of a slightly poorer quality than hay. 2 

Silage from Frosted Corn gave slightly poorer results than from 
unfrosted corn. 3 

Silage and Hay. The Maine Experiment Station Reports upon an 
experiment to determine the comparative value of good hay and corn 
silage. The estimates were made upon the basis of the digestible matter 
of each. For two months corn silage partly took the place of good hay, 
but it had the effect of only slightly changing the quality. The percent- 
age of fat remained the same, but there was a small increase in quality. 
Whitcher made a similar experiment, using timothy grass, but in this case 
the silage showed decided advantages. 

Corn and Clover Silage. The Vermont Experiment Station com- 
pared corn silage with clover silage, with the result that all ten of the cows 
gave a better quality of milk on corn than on clover silage. The butter 
fat was 35 per cent, higher, or 8 per cent, better in the milk during the corn 
silage feeding period. 

Silage. Change from dry feed to silage resulted in slight, increase in 
both quantity and quality. 4 Silage produced less milk than hay, the quality 
1 icing the same. 5 Silage feeding favored milk and butter production, while 
timothy hay favored fat production. 6 Silage produces a softer butter than 
hay. 7 At the Maine Station silage was slightly better than hay for milk 
production. 8 

Soy Beans were better than the vetch or oats in five out of six cases. 9 

Hungarian hay gave poorer returns than silage. 10 

Prairie hay is equal to timothy hay. 11 

Bermuda hay and timothy hay are equal. 12 The cows were given 
a preliminary ration of 1:6 and changes made in the hay. 

Clover hay caused an increase or prevented the natural decrease at 



1 Report Massachusetts Agr. Experiment Station, 1888. 

2 Report Vermont Agr. Experiment Station, 1890, J. L. Hills. 

3 Report Vermont Agr. Experiment Station, 1889, J. L. Hills. 

4 Bulletin No. 9, New Hampshire Agr. Experiment Station, G. H. 

Whitcher. 

5 Report Vermont Experiment Station, 1890. J. L. Hills. 

6 Bulletin 4, Minnesota Agr. Experiment Station. Edward D. Porter. 

7 Bulletin 13, New Hampshire Experiment Station, A. H. Wood and 

C. L. Parsons. 

8 Report of Maine Agr. Experiment Station, 1889. 

9 Report of Maine Agr. Exp. Station, 1890. 

10 Report Vermont Exp. Station, 1889, J. L. Hills. 

11 Bulletin 30, Minnesota Agr. Exp. Station, T. L. Haecker. 

12 Bulletin 21, Mississippi Agr. Exp. Station, E. R. Lloyd. 



FOOD EFFECT ON MILK SECRETION. 217 

each period at which it was used. A shrinkage occurred at each time the 
change occurred away from the clover 

Vetch hay caused a slight gain. 

Mixed hay gave an increase over mixed and oat hay. 

Oat hay had less value than other fodder. The effect was upon quan- 
tity and not quality. 1 

Peas and Oats hay wer.e not relished, but when eaten gave high value. 2 

Apple pomace has about the same value as silage. 3 

Beets were found to increase the flow of milk, but not enough to pay 
for the extra cost of the ration. 4 

Sugar beets as well as carrots almost without exception temporarily 
raise the quality of milk. 5 They give butter of good color which keeps 
well, but like that from potatoes, is not of high grade. 6 

Sugar beet pulp, pound for pound, on the basis of dry matter, was 
found to be equal 'to corn silage. The milk produced from feeding the 
beet pulp, as it comes from the sugar beet factory, is worth about one-half 
that of corn silage. In this experiment five cows were used for a period of 
eleven weeks, the time being equally divided between the two feeds. There 
was no constant effect upon the percentage of fat. 7 

Roots were compared with silage in a feeding trial with the result 
that apparently the roots seemed to do best, but estimated on the basis 
of air dried content, the silage gave the best results. 8 

Green Food. A change from dry to green food increased the quantity 
but only slightly alteied the quality. 9 

Carrots had the. greater value, pound for pound, for the vegetable 
matter they contained than corn silage. 10 

Potatoes produced a butter that is colorless and lacks keeping qualities. 

Pasture with Grain Ration Added. An experiment was conducted to 
try the influence of the addition of a grain ration to cows on pasture. Three 



1 Bulletin 13, New Hampshire Agr. Exp. Station, G. H. Whitcher. 

2 Report Vermont Agr. Exp. Station, 1889, J. L. Hills. 

3 Ibid. 

4 Bulletin 5, Ohio Agr. Experiment Station, Vol. III. 

5 Report Massachusetts Agr. Experiment Station, 1889. 

6 Bulletin 17, Iowa Agr. Experiment Station. F. A. Leighton and D. 

B. Bisbee. 

7 Bulletin 183, Cornell Agr. Experiment Station. H. H. Wing and Leroy 

Anderson. 

8 Bulletin 26, Penn. Agr. Exp. Station. H. J. Watters and R. J. Weld. 

9 Bulletin 9, New Hampshire Exp. Station. G. H. Whitcher. 
10 Report Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1888. 



218 , THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

cows were kept on a pasture only, and three were given grain. The lot on 
pasture only decreased from 20.60 pounds to 17.88 pounds of milk and .86 
pounds to .77 pounds of fat, and the per cent, of fat increased from 4.19 
to 4.29 pounds from June 8 to September 21. During the same period the 
grain fed lot decreased from 20.55 pounds to 13.09 pounds of milk, and 
. 86 to . 65 pounds of fat, and increased the per cent, of fat from 4. 18 per cent. 
to 4.95 per cent. The final result was too close to draw a definite con- 
clusion. 1 This work was duplicated and reported in bulletin 22, when 
Lot I produced a total of 118.4 pounds of butter fat and Lot II, 119.72 
pounds. Lot II consumed 2,822 pounds of wheat bran and cottonseed 
meal. The experiment was again repeated and reported in Bulletin 
36, at which time the grain feeding showed better because of the short 
pasture. 

Pasture Alone. For the production of milk there is no feed so cheap as 
grass. 2 Changing cattle from barn feeding to pasture resulted in more 
and better milk. 3 

Drouth caused a great shrinkage in milk. 4 

Miscellaneous. The following rations (1) cottonseed, corn meal and 
wheat bran, (2) peas and barley, and (3) linseed. meal, corn meal and wheat 
bran, were alternated through three periods. There was less variation 
because of the changes of feed than is often seen in uncommon feeding; 
the quantity was diminished slightly in passing from the first to the sec- 
ond, and increased in passing from the second to the third feeding. The 
melting point of the butter and the percentage of olein was lower in 
the second than in the others. 5 

Heavy Grain. In general it may be said that the limit to assimilate 
a heavy grain feed and respond in milk produce is dependent upon the in- 
dividuality of the animal. 6 

Light and Heavy Meals. Light foods as bran, are often as good, 
weight for weight, as heavier for quantity and quality of milk, but seems 
to cream less thoroughly than from heavier meals. 7 

Heavy grain had the effect of decreasing the hardness of the butter. 8 

Nutritive Ratio. No relation was found between the nutritive 



1 Bulletin 13, Cornell Univ. Agr. Ex. Sta. I. P. Roberts and H. II. Wing. 

2 Bulletin 52, Cornell Univ. Agr. Ex. Sta. H. H. Wing. 

3 Report Vermont Exp. Station, 1890. J. L. Hills. 

4 Bulletin 105, New York Agr. Exp. Station 1890. L. L. Van Slyke. 

5 Report of Maine Agr. Ex. Station, 1891. 

6 Report Vermont Agr. Exp. Station, 1890. J. L. Hills. 

7 Report of Vermont Agr. Exp. Station. 1S90. J. L. Hills. 

8 Bulletin 13, New Hampshire Agr. Exp. Station, 1890. G. H. Whitcher. 



POOD EFFECT ON MILK SECRETION. 219 

values of fodders and the products formed, or between the albuminoids 
of the food and the casein in the milk. 1 

Changing Feeds. The final results in changing food showed that there 
was little change in the total fat produced, as change in quality was com- 
pensated for by quantity. 2 

Diet. The influence of a certain diet may have a widely different 
effect on different animals. 3 No relation was found to exist between foods 
and volatile fatty acids, except in the case of skim milk. 4 

Narrow and Wide Rations. Two rations containing approximately 
the same quantity of digestible matter, one narrow and the other wide, 
gave from 20 to 36 per cent, more milk on the narrow, and from 30 to 40 
per cent, higher total solids on the narrow, than on the wider rations. In 
the experiment three cows were used for three periods of thirty-five days 
each. The wide ration was 1 to 12:3: the narrow ration 1 to 6.7. 5 

Rations may have equal digestible constituents, but be derived from 
different sources, as follows: Ration L Ration „ 

Timothy hay 5 15 

Corn silage 40 25 

Oats ground 5 

Peas ground , 6 

Malt sprouts., 2 

Brewers grains dried 3 

Buffalo gluten feed 3 

Ration No. 1 is supposed to have the larger proportion of easily digestible 
carbohydrates, but it had no advantage over No. 2 in milk production. 6 

The effect of widening a nutritive ratio from 1:5 to 1 :9, and from 
1:5.6 to 1:8 was to cause adecrease of from8tol3 per cent, in the flow. 7 With 
the same cows hardness depends more upon the character of the feed than 
upon the nutritive ratio. 8 

While the foregoing experiments are typical of the work done to de- 
termine the effect of food upon the quantity and quality of milk, they 

1 Report of Vermont Agr. Exp. Station, 1889. J. L. Hills. 

2 Bulletin 30, Nebraska Agr. Station. C. L. Ingersoll and H. B. 

Duncanson.. 

3 Report of Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1888. 

4 Bulletin 13, New Hampshire Agr. Exp. Sta. A. H. Wood and C. L. 

Parsons. 

5 Report of Maine Agr. Exp. Station, 1893. W. H. Jordan. 

6 Bulletin 141, New York Agr. Exp. Station. W. H. Jordan and C. G 

Jenter. 

7 Bulletin 9, New Hampshire Agr. Exp. Station. G. H. Whitcher. 

8 Bulletin 13, New Hampshire Agr. Exp. Station. A. H. Wood and 

C. L. Parsons. 



220 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

seem to show that some foods have more effect upon milk production than 
others. In all cases the influence is within narrow limits, and can all 
probably be accounted for by the general effect upon the body, or by one 
food being more palatable than another and therefore more agreeable to 
the animal. The effect upon milk is probably no greater than it is upon 
the body as a whole. 

The discrepancy between the results obtained by different experimenters 
may often be accounted for by the difference in the method of conducting 
the experiments. The usual length of time given to each period in a feeding 
experiment is ten clays or two weeks. Many foods have a temporary 
stimulating effect, which food naturally shows in such short-period ex- 
periments, and which would disappear if the period were continued for a 
longer time. 

The duration of the period, which should be given to an experiment, 
was also studied at the Vermont Experiment Station. Their results show 
that the period should be about four weeks, in order to make a comparison 
of quantity, and that the period should be six weeks or more in order to 
get a comparison in quality. This is another evidence of the slow rate 
at which physiological changes take place in an organ having a fixed habit, 
and also the folly of drawing conclusions from short experiments upon 
animals. 

Effects of Certain Foods and Drugs. 1 A great many substances 
may be transmitted to the milk. The volatile fats that are derived directly 
from the food may give either desirable or undesirable flavors to the milk. 
The characteristic flavors we esteem are due to the grasses, clover and 
like fodders, while the undesirable are due to leek, garlic, onions, turnips, 
cabbages, fish, etc. We also find poisonous substances such as camphor, 
turpentine and camomile, aloes, arsenic, lead and tartaric acid transmitted 
to the milk. Milk to which aloes, mercury and copper have been trans- 
mitted, frequently is injurious. If proper precaution is taken the undesirable 
flavors and detrimental effects may be easily obviated, since all these flavor- 
ing oils pass off through the excretory channels in a comparatively short 
time. We shall find them present in the greatest amount, not only in the 
milk but in all the tissues of the animal during the time the fodder containing 
them is undergoing digestion, and by the time digestion is completed, the 
volatile products will have almost entirely passed away. Thus, if care is 
taken in feeding so that it will be performed at least eight to ten hours 
before, milking/there will be slight danger of contaminating it. If milking 
should occur in four or five hours, the milk will have an undesirable flavor. 
Taking advantage of this, and feeding the cow immediately before or after, 
dairymen are often enabled to feed large quantities of turnips, and even 
onions without contamination of the milk. The presence of wild garlic 



1 Experiment Station Record, Vol. V., p. 973. 



FOOD EFFECT ON MILK SECRETION. 221 

and wild onions in the pasture, is a source of bad flavor to the milk. Of 
course the remedy here is to remove the wild garlic and onions. It is claimed 
that placing a small piece of saltpeter in the milking pail will counteract 
the odor of the turnips. A peck of onions fed to a cow will impart no more 
odor to the milk than will a small piece of onion added to the milk. Van- 
denhoydouch 1 reports a case in which milk of all the cows of a village 
became bitter, although the cows were healthy. The cows were fed on 
Swedish turnips which had been washed in foul ditch water. As soon as 
this was discovered and remedied the milk became all right. Weigmann 
and Zurn report a case in which the straw used for bedding caused soapy 
milk. E. Hess, }. Schaffer and H. Lang have observed the effects of glaubers 
salts 2 on some of the cattle of Switzerland. They fed four cows, increasing 
from 40 to 60 grains per head daily, and compared the results with common 
salt. The cows gave signs of disease of the udder, such as bloody milk, 
caking and catarrh. After four days the milk was again normal, but had 
a taste similar to a weak solution of glaubers salts. The most striking 
change in the milk was a decrease in the ability of the casein to be curdled 
in rennet. The effect of feeding potassium chlorate, according to Bieler, 
was an increase in the yield of milk at the expense of quality. Cornevin 
found that pilocarpin increased the sugar from about .65 of a gram to 5.5 
grams per litre. 

Soxhlet 3 has succeeded in demonstrating that butter made from cows 
fed oil has a melting point of 10 degrees F. higher than normal butter. 

Effect of Water. There is a popular notion that the more water 
that a cow can be induced to take into the system, the more milk she will 
yield. To prove this, animals were fed silage two periods, with corn fodder 
between, and succeeding which corn fodder with silage was 
used. In every case where there had been a decrease in milk flow there 
had been a decrease in total amount of water taken into the system and 
in every case where there had been a gain in the milk, there had been an 
increase in the amount of water taken into the system. Three cows drank 
for both silage periods 2,182 pounds of water, and both fodder periods 
2,849 pounds of water, but the silage eaten contained 2,489 pounds of 
water, so that the total water taken during the silage period was 8,226 
pounds, while for the fodder period only 5,435 pounds of water. For the 
silage periods the cows gave 19.07 pounds of milk, and the fodder periods 
18.51 pounds of milk, showing that during the period in which the greatest 
quantity of water was taken into the system they gave the most milk in 
return. It is also shown that as the period of lactation advances the amount 



1 Experiment Station Record, Vol. V., p. 971. 

2 Experiment Station Record, Vol. V., p. 971. 

3 Journal Royal Agricultural Society, Third series, Vol. Ill, p. 655-662. 



222 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

of decrease of water taken into the system and the amount of milk produced 
are almost exactly in the same proportion, that is, the decrease of water 
taken in during the second silage period was 19 per cent, of the amount 
in the first, while the milk decreased 20 per cent. 

In the fodder period, the second shows a decrease of 14 per cent, of 
water and 13 per cent, of milk over the first period, while in all the periods 
the decrease of 14 per cent, of water and 13 per cent, of milk occurred from 
the first. 

That this is not chance, but characteristic of cows, will appear from 
a study of the experiment made during three years at the Wisconsin Experi- 
ment Station 1 and in seven out of eight tests the cows took more water into 
the system daily and gave more milk while eating silage than on corn fodder, 
and in the other cases the amounts were equal, thus showing that the rations 
which produced the most milk contained the most water. When silage was 
fed with water at 39 degrees F. there were 2.9 pounds of water drank for 
each pound of milk yielded. 

Minnesota conducted a like experiment, giving three cows water at 70 
degrees, and three cows water at 33 degrees. The three cows receiving the 
warm water drank an average of 95 pounds daily ; those receiving the cold 
water drank 87 pounds daily. No special difference could be attributed to 
the one over the other, either on the milk or butter. The animals receiving 
the warm water gained 43 pounds, while those receiving the cold water 
gained 140 pounds. 2 A similar experiment conducted in Michigan 3 
from January 19 to March 14, using water at the freezing point and at 
60 degrees, showed that on four cows there was a gain of only 45^ pounds of 
milk during the entire period. It is also recorded by the Vermont Experi- 
ment Station that water at 40 degrees was taken as freely as that above. 4 

There is supposed to be a difference in the comparative value of warm 
and cold water for milk cows. To prove this, two experiments were con- 
ducted at the Wisconsin Experiment Station to ascertain the effect of the 
temperature of the water on the milk production. One experiment lasted 
for sixty-four days and the other one for sixty days. There were six cows 
used in each test. One lot was given water at a temperature of 32 degrees 
F. and the other 70 degrees F. In the first experiment the time was divided 
into three periods of sixteen days each with intervals between them. At 
the close of these periods the water temperatures were reversed, that is, the 
cows which received water at 32 degrees F. were given water at 70 degrees F. 



1 Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Bull. 21, and Reports 

'89-'90. 

2 Bulletin No. 4, Minnesota Agr. Exp. Station. Edward D. Porter. 

3 Michigan Agr. Exp. Station, Bulletin 41. 

4 Report Vermont Agr. Exp. Station, 1889. J. L. Hills. 



FOOD EFFECT ON MILK SECRETION. 223 

and vice versa. The warm water gave the best results, making 1.002 pounds 
of milk more per day. The cows ate more while on warm water than on 
the cold. The fat content was about the same in the samples of the different 
milk. 

It is an interesting fact that a cow in full flow of milk requires from 
one-fourth to one-third more water than when she is not giving milk, and 
a cow giving a large quantity of milk requires more than one not giving so 
much. Cows not giving milk require from 70 to 80 pounds daily upon 
dry feed and from 100 to 120 pounds daily when giving milk. 

The Effect of Change in Temperature and Storms. The effect 
of sudden change in temperature seems to affect the secretion of milk in 
an indirect manner through the nervous system. It would be but natural 
to expect that some effect would be noticed either upon the quantity or qual- 
ity or both. An examination of the milk in butter fat record of the cow 
Early Morn at the Indiana Station for one year, fails to show any connec- 
tion between the quantity or quality of her milk, and the condition of the 
weather. In fact, her greatest variations occurred at times when the 
weather was stationary. It may be remarked in this case, that this might 
be due in part to the unusual good protection which she received. 

The study made upon the effect of temperature at the Vermont Ex- 
periment Station and its results seems to show that the effect of temperature 
upon the quality of milk is an inverse one, that almost two-thirds or exactly 61 
per cent, of the changes in quality were in opposite directions to the 
changes in temperature. During the period under observa- 
tion there were thirty-one changes of temperature; seventeen rising, ten 
falling, four stationary. On fifteen of the days, when the weather became 
warmer the fat in the milk decreased, and as the weather became cooler, 
the fat increased. The tendency from this would seem to be that the milk 
became richer when the temperature was falling, and less rich during the 
rising temperature. In the test in 1892, there were 55 chances for com- 
paring the effect of changing temperature upon the per cent, of total 
fat in milk, and 33 to test the effect on the percent, of total solids. There were 
22 cases of rising, 21 of falling and 12 of stationary noon temperature. Dur- 
ing the twenty-one days the fat percentage in night's milk changed in op- 
posite direction to the temperature, during eighteen it changed in the same 
direction, and in four cases there was no change in fat per cent., thus con- 
firming the former test. The total solids were found to rise and fall in 
much the same way as the fat. During the thirty-three days of the first 
half of the test, in which the calculations of the solids were made, there 
were fourteen days of rising, twelve of falling and seven of stationary noon 
temperature. On fifteen days the total solids percentage in the night 
milk varied inversely, on seven days the changes were in the same direc- 
tion and there were four cases of no change. A little more than two- thirds 
(68 per cent.) of the changes were in the opposite direction to the temperature 



224 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

changes. In the experiments, the changes in the inverse direction were 
more decided than those in the same direction. 

During the test made in 1891 by the Vermont Experiment Station 1 
there were several heavy storms. The amount of milk delivered imme- 
diately following these was larger than just before. The quality of milk 
cannot be said to vary much in any direction, but the milk of the second 
morning after the storm was less in quantity and richer in quality than 
before. The amount of this disturbance was not in accord with the size 
of the storm. The cows do not appear to have made any change in the 
quantity or quality of the milk on the approach of the storm, and no con- 
nection is traceable between the storms and pounds of butter produced. 
Observations after sixty storms show that after seven there was diminished 
quantity and after three there was no change. 2 

In experiments conducted at this station (Indiana) in 1893 milk cows 
exposed to the weather in the winter, but provided with night shelter, 
made a very unfavorable showing, as compared with those given shelter 
in the stable excepting for brief airing when the weather was suitable. 
The exposed cows ate more food, lost in weight and also in milk yield, while 
the sheltered ones gained in weight and made a better showing. At the 
Kansas Experiment Station similar results were obtained. 

Regularity and Uniformity of Milking. While the process of 
milk secretion is a continuous one, it is not entirely uniform, for, as is gen- 
erally believed, the rate of secretion is increased greatly while milking. 
Again, in proof of this the distention of the milk ducts and reservoirs by 
milk already present, acts as a check upon secretion. In all cases the udder 
becomes unduly distended with milk between milkings, and an increased 
flow will be secured by milking off the milk. The time of milking should 
be regular, for a difference of an hour will frequently make a difference of 
10 per cent, in the amount secreted, and if the irregularities are frequent 
a diminished flow will result, The amount given is also considerably af- 
fected by the way in which the milk is drawn. In general it may be said 
that rapid milking is conducive to a large flow. At all times the milk should 
be drawn so that no discomfort is caused to the animal, and in this respect 
there is a great difference among milkers. A rapid, uniform stroke, with 
a firm touch of the teat and a stroking motion of the lower part of the udder 
gives the best results. Babcock has found that certain milkers get not only 
more, but richer milk than others from the same cow. 

The Vermont Experiment Station undertook to demonstrate 3 the fact 
that fast milking is more advantageous than slow. In so doing, eight cows 



1 Rept. Vermont Agr. Exp. Station, 1891. 

2 Bulletin 30, Nebraska Agr. Exp. Station. C. L. Ingersoll and H. B. 

Duncanson. 

3 Vermont Experiment Station. Report of '91, page 55. 



FOOD EFFECT ON MILK SECRETION. 225 

were used in the experiment — four full milkers and four strippers. The 
slow milking took from two to two and one-half times as long as the rapid 
milking. The experiment proved two things: 1st. The diminution in the 
milk flow from one period to another; 2d. Essentially unchanged quality. 
All the cows gave less when milked slowly, although in three cases the differ- 
ence was but slight. The same station demonstrated that the quality is 
lowered but the quantity increased by milking them three times a day. 

Two cows milked every hour for seventy-two hours gained both in 
quantity and per cent, of fat. The gain the first day was much greater than 
on the subsequent day. 1 

2 H. H. Dean tried milking diagonal teats to see if there would be an 
increase in the milk production. With one cow there was no difference; 
with another, less milk was given. F. Albert tried a similar experiment 
and found that by milking the quarters or diagonal teats that there was 
a marked increase in the quantity. He was so sure of his conclusions 
that he strongly recommends that this method of milking be always fol- 
lowed. 

Dr. E. L. Sturtevant had the different quarters of the udder of a cow 
milked separately a number of times, and the milk weighed, and the total 
solids and fat determined. He found a marked difference in the quality 
of the milk from different quarters of the udder. Dr. Babcock made a 
similar experiment along the same lines and his results may be briefiv stated 
that, for any single milking the results fully confirmed those of Dr. Sturtevant 
and showed a decided difference in the quality of the milk from different 
teats: If, however, the whole series be considered it is evident that the 
order* in which the teats are milked is the chief factor which affects the 
quality of the milk. Dr. Babcock says in conclusion, "It is doubtful about 
there being any difference in the physiological function of the different 
quarters of the udder." At the Indiana Experiment Station like experi- 
ments Avere conducted with the same results. At the North Carolina 
Station cows milked one teat at a time showed a less per cent, of fat than 
those milked as usual. 3 

Effect of Exercise. Though locomotion is detrimental to the yield 
of milk, it is a mistake to suppose that uninterupted confinement in the 
stall is the most economical treatment for a milk cow. With moderate 
locomotive exercise, the slight reduction in quantity of milk appears to 
be fully compensated by the increased yield of solids. Munk undertook to 
to settle this point, and experimented with thirty cows and found that when 
they were allowed half an hour daily exercise the total quantity of the milk 
as well as the fat and casein increased, though much exercise exerted an 
adverse influence on the yield. When cows are on grass their increased 



1 Bulletin 9, New Hampshire Agr. Exp. Station. G. H. Whitcher. 

2 Experiment Station Record, Vol. V., p. 965. 

3 Bulletin 116, North Carolina Agr. Exp. Sta. F. E. Emery. 



226 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

appetites in the presence of an abundance of food quite makes up for any 
loss incurred in the movement necessary to obtain that food. Hence it -is 
desirable that stall fed milk cows should have daily exercise. Very violent 
exercise sometimes has the effect of producing very much change in the 
quality as well as the quantity. It always has the effect of lessening the 
quantity but the effect upon chemical composition is not known. There 
ate numerous instances, however, in which the physiological effect of taking 
milk from an exhausted animal has proven injurious. It is generally 
recognized among farmers that it is unsafe to allow a calf or colt to suckle 
when the dam is overheated. Two observations upon this point are recorded 
as follows: 

On April 30, 1893, at Lake City, Fla., a fine cow was owned by Mr. P. 
She had a calf some five miles from home and the calf was a week old, strong 
and healthy. The calf was hauled home in a buggy and the cow made to 
walk. She ran a considerable of the distance and was exhausted when 
the barn was reached. The calf suckled on arrival home and soon became 
very sick with a violent diarrhoeal discharge. 

In 1895 the cows owned by some people in West LaFayette, were herded 
by a boy. He drove them home very hurriedly one night to avoid a rain 
storm. They w r ere somewhat overheated and gave a small quantity of milk 
that night. Two calves became attacked with diarrhoea. Several people 
were also affected. In two cases mammitis was the result of the bruising 
of the udder in running. 

Effect of change of Location. The effect of a change of quarters 
on the quantity and quality of milk was experimented upon by the Vermont 
Station. The herd was milked and then driven three and one-half •miles 
to new quarters. Composite samples were taken of the milk of seven cows 
for four milkings before and after the change. There were six and one- 
tenth per cent, larger yields of milk ingredients followed the change. Bab- 
cock found in a similar experiment a falling off in both quantity and quality, 
but the increase of the succeeding days more than compensated for the 
decrease. A change in the stable routine, as feeding out of order or at 
irregular times, may have like effect. 1 

Effect of Nervousness. Both the secretion and the excretion of 
the milk are under the control of the nervous system, but the exact mode 
whereby the nervous influence is exerted, remains to be worked out. In- 
directly, however, the secretion of milk must largely be affected through 
the sympathetic nervous system, whose center is a chain of nervous element 
extending along the general body cavity just beneath the back bone. The 
nerves act. by controlling the caliber of the blood vessels, and thus regulating 
the blood going to the udder. It is a well established fact, that anxiety of 
the mother, caused by removal of the young, as well as by sudden fear 
— all chance excitement of any kind — will cause a partial and sometimes 



1 Bulletin 116, North Carolina Exp. Sta. F. E. Emery. 



FOOD EFFECT ON MILK SECRETION. 227 

a complete suppression 'of the milk secretion. Not only is the amount of 
milk secreted affected by the nervous state of the animal, but its composition 
is also changed even when the quantity remains the same. Unkind treat- 
ment of the cow, willful or otherwise, is found to show its effects in diminish- 
ing the yields of milk. Ill ventilated, badly drained or too draughty cow 
houses, careless exposure in bad weather, irregular feeding, brutal usage, 
fast driving, the mad rushing about, provoked by the attacks of ox warble 
fly and a variety of other causes, are bound to exert an influence upon 
the nerves, the effect of which will be certainly recorded in the milk pail. 
At the Vermont station a test was made of dairy cows at home and at 
the fair ground, 1 to determine the effect of the nervous excitement on 
the milk flow. The results indicate that the tendency of nervous excite- 
ment is to lessen the quantity of milk and to variously affect the quality, 
according to the individuality of the animal, the fat being the most vari- 
able ingredient. In general, the activity of the animal and the nervous 
excitement decreases the flow of milk, stall fed animals producing more 
than grazing animals. 

The Effect of Rage, Fright and Sudden Shocks all have a marked 
effect upon the quantity and probably upon the quality. Flint reports 
Vermois and Becquerel as mentioning a very striking case, in which a wet 
nurse in a hospital lost her child from pneumonia and was deeply affected 
and grieved. She immediately had a marked diminution in the quantity 
of her milk and a diminution in the proportion of salts, sugar and butter. 
There was an increase in the casein. The same writer quotes Sir Ashley 
Cooper as mentioning two cases in which the secretion was instantly and 
permanently arrested by terror. There are a large number of such reports 
due to mental impressions. 

Similar observations have been made upon animals. On August 12, 
1892, Lake City, Fla., the following case occurred: A fine cow owned by 
Mrs. T. had a healthy calf four days old at her side. The cow was of a very 
nervous temperament, and particularly averse to dogs. Upon the night 
of that date the dog strayed into the stall next to the cow and calf. The 
cow made frantic efforts to get at the dog, and was in a state of excitement 
for six hours. The calf remained quiet and unharmed. Three hours after 
the calf suckled, it died. 

Another case occurred August 10, 1891, at Bourbon, Ind. A valuable 
mare was owned by Mr. C. She had a foal six weeks old. The day was 
very hot and the mare was used at the harrow, and the colt left in the shade. 
The mare fretted greatly and was worked a couple of hours longer than usual 
to finish a piece of work. The foal was allowed to suckle as soon as work 
was stopped. It died in about four hours. No cause could be assigned, 



1 Vermont Experiment Station. Report 1895. 



228 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



except the possibility of the milk having become altered both by fretting 
and work. 

It has also been observed that after sheep have been frightened or 
worried by dogs, a number of lambs may die which have in no way been 
disturbed or injured by the dogs. It seems in such cases as though the 
milk had induced the trouble. 

Effect of Abortion. The Vermont Experiment Station 1 has made 
several observations on the effect of abortion, on the quantity and quality 
of milk, the most important of which are as follows: That there is a shrink- 
age of over one-third of milk yield, a gain of one-tenth in quality, shrinkage 
of nearly one-third in butter yield and a more even quality of milk throughout 
the year was obtained. In seven out of eight cases the quality of the milk 
both as regards fat and solids not fat, was better than that given after 
normal calving. 

The herd at the Minnesota Experiment Station has likewise been 
troubled with abortion. In the following table are the records of rive cows 
for six months immediately following normal calving, which preceded 
abortion, and for six months following abortion. 

TABLE 5. 
Influence of Abortion on Quantity and Quality of Milk. 



NAME OF COW. 



Normal Calving 



Pounds 
milk 



Percent, 
fat 



Pounds 
fat 



Pounds 
milk 



Per cent. 

fat 



Pounds 
fat 



Beekley 
Clara . , 
Rosey . 
Lorry . 
Sulley. . 



2,891 
3.437 
3,784 

4, LSI 
3,324 



5.89 
4.40 
5.40 
4.54 
4.41 



170.3 
151.2 
142.7 
189.6 
146.3 



2,032 
2,937 
3,765 
2,736 
3,737 



5.84 
4.63 
5.79 
4.76 
4.68 



118.6 
135.9 
153.9 
130.0 
174.9 



Three gave less milk and butter after abortion than after normal calv- 
ing, two gave more, four gave better milk and one milk of the same quality. 
The differences on the whole, were less pronounced than in the Vermont 
herd. 

Effect of Sickness. A general disease may have an immediate ef- 
fect upon the quantity and quality of milk. The usual result is to make 



1 Vermont Experiment Station. Report 1892. 



POOD EFFECT ON MILK SECRETION. 



229 



a diminution of the quantity, and frequently it does not return to normal 
after the animal has gotten well. 

The effects of an overfeed is shown in table 6, below, the overfeed hav- 
ing been given March 11, the dates following showing fluctuation until a 
normal condition was again established. 

TABLE 6. 



Date 


Pounds 
milk, a. m. 


Per cent, 
fat 


Pounds 

milk, p. m. 


Per cent 
fat 


3—11 


16.3 


4.8 


10.8 


7.5 


12 


3.8 


4.2 


6.8 


9.5 


13 


22 . 


IS. 


1.7 


14. 


14 


3.8 


14. 


5.2 


2.9 


15 


6.2 


8. 


4.5 


8.4 


16 


7.S 


6.8 


7. 


5.8 


17 


in. 


4.4 


8.5 


4.4 


18 


n. 


4.4 


8.1 


4.8 


19 


12.6 


4.4 


9.8 


6. 


20 


13.7 


4.5 


10.6 


5.4 



Effect of Tuberculin. The effect of tuberculin has been noted by 
a number of writers, and has been made the subject of special experi- 
mental research at three different experiment stations. The result of all 
the work is to show that tuberculin probably has no effect upon the quan- 
tity or quality of milk. That equal or greater changes may take place 
at any time without the injection of tuberculin. In some cows the quan- 
tity of milk is slightly increased, and in others it is decreased. The prin- 
cipal experiments to determine the effect of the tubercvilin injection have 
been conducted at the Cornell and North Dakota experiment stations. 

Effects of Dehorning. The effects of a surgical operation, such as 
dehorning, upon the milk flow is of only a temporary character. The effect 
of dehorning has been observed at several of the experiment stations, and 
the effect has usually been of temporary shrinkage in the milk, lasting only 



230 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

a few days. At Minnesota the, cows were divided into two lots, part de- 
horned and part left to witness the act. Those dehorned had a shrink- 
age of seven per cent, in quantity of milk and three per cent, in fat. Those 
witnessing the work and smelling the blood lost three per cent, in quantity 
and eleven per cent, in fat. 1 In Georgia only twenty pounds of milk were 
lost the first day after dehorning eight cows. 

Effects of Spaying. The immediate effect of spaying is to cause a 
shrinkage in the milk flow. This is usually recovered in two or three days. 
The prominent effect is to prolong the period of lactation for two or three 
years. It neither increases the daily yield or improves the quality. 



1 Bull. 19, Minn. Ex. Sta., Clinton D. Smith and T. L. Haecker. 



"Our knowledge is the amassed thought and 
experience of innumerable minds." 

— Emerson. 



MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY WORK ON THE LARGE 
ESTATE OF BILTMORE FARMS. 



GOLDEN ROSEBAY CALLED "A QUEEN AMONG COWS" — HIGH BREEDING 
OF OTHERS OF THE DAIRY HERD. 

Biltmore, N. C 

Among the famous dairies maintained by American capitalists, probably 
that of George W. Vanderbilt at Biltmore, N. C, knOwn as Biltmore Farms, 
is the most extensive and unique in its appointments. This vast estate 
within a few miles of Asheville is said to contain 168 square miles, on which 
dairying and other farm industries are carried on chiefly for the interesting 
occupation the management of them affords, but with full regard to satis- 
factory returns from every source. 

A herd of several hundred Jersey cows is kept for milking and the milk 
retailed in surrounding cities from wagons belonging to the farms. Naturally 
in a herd of this nature there are many famous dairy animals, one of which — 
Golden Rosebay 157333 — has received especial commendation at the hands 
of cattle experts. 

At the 1901 sale of imported Jersey cattle held by T. S. Cooper of Coop- 
ersburg, Pennsylvania, Golden Rosebay was called the "queen among the 
cows" and proved her title by topping the sale at the price of $2,775, Bilt- 
more Farms being the purchaser. 

The picture shows her in her five year old form, as she looked on the day 
of sale, and where she won praise for her beauty, capacity and disposition, 
thus reviewed by a correspondent: 

"The honor of 'queen among the cows' was early conceded to Golden 
Rosebay, the daughter of Golden Lad that caught everybody's eye and was 
the center of a critical throng all day. ' Perfection ' was the almost unani- 
mous distinction accorded her, and by "the time she entered the ring she had 
been so thoroughly inspected, so completely looked at, felt and fondled; 
so metaphorically turned upside down and inside out and sized up, that a 
less phlegmatic constitution would have gone to pieces in the nerves. But 
Golden Rosebay urbanely submitted to all the pulling of hide and rubbing 
of udder, and took so kindly to the excursion trips of various sets of fingers 
up one milk vein and down the other, with stop-overs at teats and milk 

231 



232 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



holes, that her disposition was put down as the third of her good qualities — 
following beauty and capacity. 

"She came into the ring like a queen — and a queen she is. No words 
wasted in soliciting a starting bid on her. Some one said something about 
a thousand dollars, and a half-dozen other somebodys raised it; she went by 
hundreds to $2,500, then by fractions until $2,775 was reached and she. was 
passed into the possession of Biltmore Farms; and superintendent George 




GOLDEN ROSEBAY-IMP. JERSEY 157,333. 
Has Milked 24 Quarts Daily— Bought by Biltmore Farms for $2,775. 

F. Weston, who had her bid in to his account, was the envy of many a breeder 
at the ringside." 

Golden Rosebay has milked as high as 2-1 quarts daily, and is one of 
four of the best daughters of Golden Lad in America, all owned by Biltmore 
Farms. The quartet consists of Golden Rosebay, shown in the picture, 
Golden Kcla with a record of 1,367 pounds of milk in 30 days, making 73 
pounds, 6 ounces of butter, Golden Beatrice who sold for $1,400 at the same 
sale, and Golden Ora who has a record for one year of 8,988 pounds of milk- 
making GOG pounds of butter. A son of Golden Kola, Kola's Golden Lad, 



A QUEEN AMONG COWS. 233 

won Junior champion award at the Charleston Exposition, 1901-2, and 
has been placed in sen ice in the Biltmore herd. 

Superintendent George F. Weston tells of dairy management on Bilt- 
more Farms in a letter as follows' 

"While great attention is paid in the Biltmore herd to the breeding 
opei'ations both to increase the persistent milking qualities, as well as total 
milk yields, and to improve the type, the herd is really a dairy herd, founded 
on a milking basis, and the sale of milk and cream is the principal of 
the many enterprises carried on on these farms. With the completion of a 
central dairy barn and creamery, they have now commenced the equipment, of 
small outstanding dairy farms which will be run upon the co-operative 
system; that is, the farm in running order with all necessary buildings, cows, 
utensils, pastures, etc., will be turned over to a tenant who will separate the 
cream there and carry it to the central creamery, utilize the skim milk in 
the feeding of his calves and Berkshires, and he will receive for his work a 
monthly amount which will represent the income from the sales after a cer- 
tain sum has been deducted for interest on plant and cost of marketing from 
the price that the Biltmore Farms receive for their products. This amount 
will be about the same as if the tenant lived in a dairy section, owned his 
cattle and plant, and was selling his milk at a creamery. Dairying con- 
ducted along modern lines is a new thing in this section and many problems 
have been worked out, such as the best pastures and soiling crops, and, to 
a certain extent, a market has to be created for high class products. The 
demand for these, however, is continually on the increase and it is intended 
to continue equipping these farms until this demand is fully met. 

"About 25 cows will be kept on each farm in order to make them small 
so that the social and educational features of the settlement may be worked 
up to the best advantage with good schools, etc., as these will have to be in- 
dependent of those now conducted by the Biltmore Estate in the village." 



Not all patrons can secure cows like Golden Rosebay and her sisters, 
but none need be barred from using this ideal to breed up to and greatly 
improve over those now owned. A farm will support a Golden Rosebay as 
readily as it will sustain life in a $25 scrub. It lies with the owner to set his 
own standard of production and perfection. 



"A man's true wealth is the good 
he does in this world." — Mahomet. 



234 



DAIRY ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES AS REPORTED 

UPON BY TWENTY STATE EXPERIMENT 

STATIONS. 



COWS NOTED FOR THEIR MILK AND BUTTER RECORDS — SIRES NOTED FOR 

THEIR WORTH AS HEADS OF DAIRY HERDS — FACTS OF LIVE 

INTEREST FOR DAIRY HERD OWNERS. 

By Prominent Authorities on Dairying. 



What has been accomplished by dairymen in the past, should be the 
best guide to the possibilities of dairying of the present hour and of the 
coming years which readers of this volume shall have in which to attain 
their measure of success as led on by industry and a healthy ambition. In 
the pages that follow, are records of many prominent dairy animals tested 
and noted for their excellence as profit makers, and serving to illustrate 
proven ideas of breeding, use of feed, and value of generally better care and 
thought than many have been in the habit of giving their dairy herds. 

The reports are from the records of the agricultural colleges and ex- 
periment stations to which they are credited, and give in brief the results 
obtained from cows, how it was done, and the reasons therefor. Bearing 
in mind that the experiment stations strive to make their start where the 
dairy farmer must make his, and in their treatment of the herd handle it 
as they know the dairy farmer must do from force of environment or limit 
of expense, the owner of cows who reads these records, will do so with a 
better understanding of their meaning to him, and the results he, himself, 
should be able to secure. 

Good dairy cows and good dairy sires are the ground-work in success- 
ful dairying, and enough of them to make milk production worth while the 
effort is the superstructure. The reports teem with illustrations and ex- 
amples of the best known to the investigators whose reports are here given, 
and in many are important suggestions drawn from carefully made observa- 
tions covering long periods of time and a wide range of experiment. Their 

235 



236 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

value to the creamery patron will depend upon himself, how well he shall 
make use of what is here presented for his interests. 

These pages are largely a record of the results of good dairying. — re- 
sults such as the previous chapters have sought to point out the way by 
which the dairy farmer may attain vhem. They are the proof, not of 
theories, but of the methods in daily practice by the best dairy herd 
keepers and dairy animal breeders. No pet ideas are hereexpounded, but 
simply a collation of facts is presented as they stand in the open records 
of the stations where these animals have been reared, or as they have come 
under the notice of the author who tells of their breeding and their worth 
in the dairy. They comprise records of poor cows, of fairly good cows, 
of very good cows, and of exceptionally good cows, as well as reports on 
sires of exceptional excellence as heads of daily herds, and here and there 
a more complete comment on whence this excellence comes and why. It 
is expected that the creamery patron seeking improvement in his dairy 
herd will find these reports a most interesting and instructive additional 
feature. 



ALABAMA. 

Agricultural Experiment Station at Auburn. 



Report by Prof. J. F. Duggar, Agriculturist. 



Our records here are only of two years' standing, and I regret that I 
cannot give so much information as is desired. 

Our best cow is a Jersey — Susanna Hazen 160,809. At three years of 
age, with first calf, she made 330 pounds of butter and received only ordinary 
treatment. Her cost of keep was .$25 and she gave us a profit of $50. She 
is now in her second year of lactation, and now, four months after second 
calf, is yet making a pound of butter a day, receiving only ordinary care. 

She is a beauty as to form, color and disposition. Her yearling heifer 
is a great beauty also, teats well placed far apart; the udder comes well for- 
ward and has large folds of loose skin running well up behind. She has 
the typical dairy form, like her mother, and is as gentle and kind as a 
kitten. Her capacity is wonderful. 

Our second best cow has a record of 315 pounds of butter in one year. 
She is of perfect dairy type and performs according to the care she receives. 
Last year she gave a profit of $29, but it was an off year. She is a Jersey. 

The yearly production of butter of the average cows in our state is 
about 75 to 100 pounds. Dairying here is badly neglected, though we have 
many advantages over other sections — a large variety of good yielding 
forage crops, a long pasture season and a mild short winter, all tending to 
cheap production. 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS CONNECTICUT. 

CONNECTICUT. 
Agricultural Experiment Station at Storrs. 



237 



Report by C. L. Beach, Professor of Dairy Husbandry. 



The study of individual cows of the college herd indicated that in the 
cows of this particular herd the form and type of the cow is more reliable 
than breed alone as an indication of her productive capacity, grade cows 
of a distinctive dairy type surpassing thoroughbreds whose type indicated 
lack of dairy quality. In order to test the relation of form or type of cows 
to profitable production, we divided the whole herd into three groups, each 
cow in the herd being included in the group to the type of which she most 
nearly conformed. The divisions were made according to the physiolo- 
gical features of the cow, and the study of the particular form of each cow, 




COW No. 2*— REPRESENTING THE DAIRY GROUP. 
Her Own Record for One Year (see table 1) is, Milk S,4G5 Pounds, Butter 509 Pounds. 

along the lines suggested by Prof. T. L. Haecker, in his study of the cost 
of production with the herd of the Minnesota Experiment Station. 

The first group includes the thin, spare, deep bodied cows, and has been 
called the "Dairy group." The second group includes those carrying too 
much flesh, and is styled the "Fleshy group." The third group contains those 
lacking depth and width of the barrel, and are designated as " Lack- 
ing abdominal capacity." The results of this grouping and a comparison 
of the types included in each group are given on the following pages. 

1. Dairy group. The cows in this group are spare, with deep bodies 
and well sprung ribs. The average production of the group is 351 pounds 



238 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



of butter, and 6,190 pounds of milk. The average cost of each pound of 
butter is 12 cents, and each 100 pounds of milk is 69 cents. They yield 
an average profit of $21.49 as butter cows, and $20.24 as milk producers. 
The cow chosen to represent this group is No. 2, Copper Queen, shown in the 
cut on page 237. 

TABLE 1. 

Record of the cows grouped under the dairy type. 



Cow. 



d 


6 

< 




Yrs 


1 


9 


*2 


10 


3 


2 


4 


6 


5 


6 


6 


7 


7 


13 


8 


2 


9 


6 


10 


7 


11 


8 


12 


7 


13 


10 


14 


9 


15 


8 


16 


10 



Breed. 



00 



s- 




O 




**" 








o 




o 


oj 




U 




>> 














o 




u 




$ 


44 


54 


48 


80 


40 


60 


40 


21 


38 


18 


36 


73 


42 


18 


37 


78 


42 


88 


36 


71 


47 


06 


40 


04 


44 


08 


41 


00 


43 


13 


42 


68 


41 


66 






03«1 

< 



O 3 

o — 
£S2 



O 3 o 

a -a* 

•3 



Grade Guernsey, 

Jersey 

Grade Guernsey. 

Jersey 

Jersey 

Grade Holstein . 

Guernsey 

Grade Guernsey. 
Grade Jersey . . . 
Grade Jersey . . 

Ayrshire 

Grade. Guernsey. 
Grade Jersey . . 
Grade Jersey . . . 
Grade Guernsey. 
Guernsey, 



Average for the group 



40.42 
42.82 
25.64 
24.59 
23.02 
19.61 
22.08 
17.66 
18.86 
16.75 
20.44 
20.62 
19.28 
15.88 
8.89 
7.36 



41.04 
35.85 
19.64 
13.58 
11.96 
20.57 
22.17 
22.99 
30.16 

8.69 
35.43 

7.50 
21.40 
14.00 
12.95 

5.96 

20.24 



Lbs. 
472 
509 
368 
360 
340 
313 
357 
308 
343 
297 
375 
337 
352 
316 
289 
278 



351 



Cts. 


Lbs. 


9.44 


8558 


9.58 


8465 


11.00 


6024 


11.10 


5379 


11.20 


5014 


11.70 


5730 


11.80 


6435 


12.20 


6077 


12.20 


7304 


12.40 


4540 


12.50 


8249 


12.50 


4754 


12.50 


6548 


12.90 


5500 


14.90 


5608 


15.30 


4864 


12.00 


6190 



Cts. 
52 
58 
67 
75 
76 
64 
66 
62 
59 
81 
57 
84 
67 
75 
77 



69 



2. Fleshy group. The cows in this group are large framed animals. The 
neck is thick, the shoulders heavy, the loin wide, withers round, crops full, 
brisket heavy, and as a class they are animals that take on flesh easily and 
look smooth and plump. They make an average of only 217 pounds of 
butter each, and less than 4,000 pounds of milk. When the labor expended 
in their care is taken into consideration, they are all kept at a loss. They 
charge in cost of food 18.1 cents, or 6 cents more than the dairy group, 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS CONNECTICUT. 



239 



for each pound of butter, and 31 cents more for each 100 pounds of milk. 
The cow No. 23, shown in the cut below, is chosen to represent this group. 




COW No. 23*— REPRESENTING THE FLESHY GROUP. 
Her Record for One Year(see table 2) is, Milk 5,069 Pounds, Butter 270 Pounds. 

TABLE 2. 

Record of the cows grouped under the fleshy type. 



cow. 


u 

o 

O C 


PROFIT. 


BUTTER. 


MILK. 








"- u 


-ti t. 




_, , 


i — 


~e > 










CD CD 


03 Si 


o 














>> 


3 . 






§.2 . 


j- G 


oZ2 


6 


CD 


Breed. 


O,-, 




'c -a 

CO — 

S — o 


a <a u 

3 o oj 


"3 a— 


"S" • 

H (9 h 

3 o cS 


"&2 










O 3 CD 


^ L.ba 


O 3 <D 










o 


2 <*- 


g»^ 


£-=>> 


d«-.~ 


g-o* 


o ° a 










fc 


Ph 


< 


<J 


■3 


O 




yrs. 




$ 


$ 


$ 


Lbs. 


Cts. 


Lbs. 


$ 


2 


8 


Grade Jersey 


40.77 


5.49 


-4.48 


257 


15.8 


3629 


1.12 


*23 


9 


Jersey 


46.21 


3.47 


4.48 


276 


16.7 


5069 


.91 


24 


4 


Grade Guernsey. . . 


32.36 


-2.66 


- .95 


165 


19.5 


3141 


1.03 


25 


7 


Ayrshire 


35.05 


-4.09 


3.21 


172 


20.3 


3826 


.92 








Average for the group . . 


38.59 .55 


.56 


217 


18.1 


3916 


1.00 



— Represents amount lost. 

3. Group lacking abdominal capacity. This group contains five cows 
lacking in depth and width of barrel. They consume a little less food than 
group 1, and yield considerably less profit in return from both milk and 
butter. The cows in this group differ from those in group 1 in both form 
and disposition. No. 18 in the group is a quarrelsome animal, and the 



240 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



boss of the herd. No. 19 is a very nervous cow, and uses her energy in 
unnecessary work. No. 20 is a discontented animal, always on the alert 
for an open gate, and often found where s t he ought not to be. As a group 
these cows are "light on their feet," and very active animals, which may 
account" somewhat for their low production. They charge in food 14.9 
cents for butter and 77 cents per 100 pounds for milk. They are not profit- 
able animals, and should be weeded out of every dairy herd. The cow 
representing this group is No. 20. 




COW No. 20*-REPRESENTING THE GROUP LACKING ABDOMINAL CAPACITY. 
Her Record for One Year (see Table 3) is, Milk 4,122 Pounds, Butter 240 Pounds. 



TABLE 3. 

Record of the cows grouped under the type with small barrel. 



Cow. 


o 
-a . 

O H 

O 03 

<H <D 

«-, >> 

3 
o 


Profit. 


BUTTER. 


MILK. 


d 


6 

< 


Breed . 


3 6 

t. 03~-« 


03 <0 


6^ 

O..S 

C 0) ;_" 

2 2 * 

O 3 0) 


o 2 

.S-Sjb 

p— ' 
"o c. rf 

o " 
O 


S..S 

G <S C 

2 2 ^ 
< 


o &>h 

V o c 




Yrs 




$ 


$ 


$ 


Lbs. 


Cts. 


Lbs. 


Cts. 


17 


6 


Grade Jersey .... 


37.59 


13.17 


13.24 


282 


13.3 


5083 


75 


18 


7 


Grade Guernsey. . 


41.75 


10.81 


6.53 


292 


14.3 


4828 


86 


19 


7 


Ayrshire 


41.27 


10.21 


30.61 


286 


14.4 


7188 


57 


*20 


7 


Guernsey 


39.36 


4.92 


1.86 


246 


16.0 


4122 


95 


21 


6 


Ayrshire 


39.22 


2.72 


14.79 


233 


16.8 


5401 


73 


Avera< 


je for the group . . . 


39.83 


8.36 


13.40 


267 


14.9 


5322 


77 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS CONNECTICUT. 



241 



ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE DAIRY COW. 

Intelligent and progressive farmers and dairymen are becoming more 
familiar with the fact that milk and butter producing qualities of cows are 
accompanied by a general vigor, conformation, temperament, fineness, 
bearing, and other features that are quite characteristic. Dairymen who 
profit most in the keeping of cows familiarize themselves with these charac- 
teristics and understand their relationship to capacity for production. 
This is understood best by those who have had long experience with cows, 
and have studied under widely varying conditions their general form and 
manner, especially in connection with accurate records of performance. 




DAIRY TYPE (COW No. 2) 
To Illustrate Points Referred to In the Text. 

In a general way such knowledge includes some idea of the anatomy and 
physiology of the cow, particularly with reference to the general locality, 
development, and functions of the various organs concerned in the produc- 
tion of milk and butter. 

In a discussion of this subject the dairy cow may be considered as a 
complex machine developed for a particular purpose, consisting of a frame- 
work of characteristic form, supporting parts that are most essential 
to the purpose and parts that are less essential, the essential parts being 
those directly concerned in the production of milk and butter, while the 
less essential parts are only indirectly concerned. 

The figure above of cow No. 2 shows the outline and general features 
of a profitable cow of the dairy type, and illustrates points referred to in 
the following paragraphs: 

In the opinion of the writer it seems justifiable to state that the general 
constitutional vigor of the cow is of primary importance, and that of nearly 



242 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

as great importance are efficient digestive organs; large and well formed 
milk organs; strong heart and good blood circulation; large, strong lungs; 
and a highly developed nerve system. For convenience in the present 
discussion these are called the essential organs, and are considered here 
with some remarks concerning their uses or functions. 

Digestive organs. Milk is a manufactured article, produced by the 
cow from the food which she consumes. The capacity of a cow for produc- 
ing milk depends largely upon her capacity for digesting food and assimilating 
it into her tissues. For the accommodation of a large and efficient digestive 
apparatus a good dairy cow should have a long, deep and wide barrel with 
well sprung ribs. This form of middle piece gives ample room for the storage 
of food, and for an apparatus capable of disposing of large quantities of 
the coarse, bulky fodder which the cow consumes. 

Milk organs. The milk organs are quite intimately concerned in the 
productive capacity of the cow, as it is in these that the milk and buttcrfat 
are finally elaborated from the food. It is not altogether cleaily under- 
stood how the milk is made in the gland, but it seems quite probable that 
it is produced by the epithelial cells within the udder. So far as is known, 
the quantity of milk that can be produced depends in a large part upon 
the number and activity of these cells. The number of such cells is limited 
by the size of the udder and the amount of fatty tissue it contains. The 
dairy cow should therefore have a large udder capacity, the larger the 
better, but the size of the udder should not be due to any large amount 
of fat or flesh. There should be an elasticity of the tissue with a shrinkage 
of the udder when empty. The udder should have considerable surface 
extending far forward and well up behind. It should be well balanced and 
symmetrical in shape, indicating good development in all quarters; for the 
more perfectly developed the organ is, the larger the amount of milk it will be 
likely to yield. It should be spread considerably from side to side also, 
while the teats should be even and squarely placed. To make room for 
such a capacious, well developed udder, the hind legs of the cow should 
be wide apart, the thighs should be thin, and the flanks high arched. 

The activity of the uddef , or the amount of work done in it, is indicated 
to some extent by the quantity of blood that passes through it, which depends 
quite largely upon the capacity of the blood vessels which are connected 
therewith. It is important, therefore, that there should be a strong and 
full development of the arteries and veins of the udder and abdomen. The 
milk veins should be large and elastic, should extend well to the front, and 
should enter the abdomen through large or numerous orifices, thus permitting 
a strong flow of blood through them with a minimum of resistance as it 
returns to the heart. Besides these veins, there is a network of them in 
the forequarters of the udder, and still others pass upward behind, which, 
when large, indicate considerable productive capacity. 

Pelvic organs. Dairying is based upon the maternity of the cow. It 
is the mother function that arouses the milk organs into activity for the 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS— CONNECTICUT . 243 

feeding of the offspring. Many generations of selection and breeding by 
man have prolonged the period of activity of these organs in the dairy cow, 
but the beginning is always a function of reproduction, which must occur 
with considerable regularity in profitable cows. In order that this may occur 
with the least tax upon the general vigor and activity of the cow, she should 
have broad hips and a high pelvic arch, furnishing ample room for the young 
before birth and providing for its easy delivery. 

Heart and lungs. The chest should be deep, providing room for generous 
sized heart and lungs. These organs, vital in every animal, are required 
to do more than ordinary work in the dairy cow. The digestion of a large 
amount of food and its conversion into milk require an expenditure of energy 
and vitality equal to that expended in the performance of hard work. 
Therefore, there should be a vigorous circulation of blood and ample pro- 
vision for its purification and for a large supply of oxygen. 

The nerve system. The digestive tract prepares the food for assimilation 
into the tissues, the udder elaborates the milk, the heart forces the blood 
with its load of food and oxygen through the body, the lungs supply oxygen 
to the blood and remove from it the products of the oxidation which takes 
place in the body ; but the brain and nerve system are concerned in all these 
operations. Through the influence of this system the activities of all the 
organs are aroused, guided, controlled and harmonized. In the cow the 
heart and lungs are ever active. The digestion, absorption and assimilation 
of food, and perhaps the mysterious elaboration of milk, are constantly 
going on. Collier estimates that a cow giving an average quantity of milk 
produces, on an average, 138,210,000 fat globules per second during each 
24 hours. This and the secretion of the other constituents of the milk 
illustrate the amount of activity in the milk organs alone, and suggest the 
need of a highly developed nerve system. The more pronounced of the 
outward signs that indicate this nerve development are a bright, lively, and 
prominent eye, this prominence causing a dished face; a wide forehead; 
a wide junction of the skull and spinal column, indicating a large brain; 
a large prominent backbone, giving room for a well developed spinal cord; 
a long slim tail; and considerable energy and vigor and style of action. 

The correlation of parts. It is to be observed that further help in the 
study of dairy cows is an understanding of the reciprocal relations between 
the different parts of the body. It is in accordance with this correlation that 
the parts of the body here spoken of as less essential may be said to be indi- 
rectly concerned in the production of milk; for the same food can not be used 
at the same time for both forming flesh and producing milk; hence the smaller 
the amount of food used in the formation of tissues of these less essential 
parts, the larger the amount that will be left to be converted into milk. 

Less essential parts. The energy of the dairy cow is directed as com- 
pletely as possible toward the production of milk and butter. The tendency 
to produce milk has been increased as much as possible by breeding, in- 
heritance and development; and likewise, the tendency to lay on flesh has 



244 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

been restrained. Thus the less essential parts of the dairy cow have been 
depleted or have "paid- tribute" to the parts which are more essential to 
the purpose for which she was bred. This has resulted in developing a 
cow with a fine, slender head and neck; light fore quarters with but little 
flesh; rear quarters thin, incurved at the rear and sides, showing but little 
flesh; sharp withers; spare crops; and a generally thin, bony, angular body, 
devoid of all unnecessary flesh. 

The writer is aware that this idea of the type of the "special purpose" 
cow is opposed by advocates of the "general purpose" cow, as well as by 
numerous breeders, owners and experimenters. Correct conclusions as to 
the exact type of cow best adapted for large dairy performance can only be 
drawn after studying the records of many cows, from the economic standpoint, 
and for full lactation periods. Even then there may be exceptions to the 
general conclusions arrived at. But the dairyman is seeking for the cow 
most profitable for his own particular purpose, and will usually be guided 
by the general law of averages. 

AVERAGE PRODUCTION OF BUTTER PER COW. 

In order to get some idea of the actual average production in Connecticut 
the writer, during the summer of 1899, made a canvass of a large number 
of herds whose owners patronized one of the large creameries in this state. 
From data collected in this canvass an average production of butter per 
cow was estimated, and is tabulated below. The amounts stated here are 
based upon the quantities of actual butter-fat delivered to the creamery, 
together with the careful estimates of the quantities of milk, cream and 
butter used by the different families on the farms where the herds were 
kept, as well as the amounts of milk used in raising or fattening calves on 
the farm. 

Average annual production of butter per cow by the herds of the patrons of one 
Connecticut creamery. 

1 herd comprising 10 cows averaged 300 or more pounds 

8 " " 58 " " 250 to 300 

16 " " 133 " " 200 to 250 

14 " " 89 " " 150 to 200 

8 " " 102 " " less than 150 

47 herds " 392 " " 199 

The results of this canvass show that only one herd averaged more 
than 300 pounds of butter per cow per year, and only eight herds averaged 
from 250 to 300 pounds. The actual butter production per cow per year 
in the whole 47 herds of 392 cows averaged 199 pounds. From the best 
data available it appears that the average conditions in New England require 
that a cow shall produce not less than 250 pounds of butter per annum 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS ILLINOIS. 245 

before she can begin to yield a profit, when the cost of food, labor and other 
items are computed at the market prices. Yet the above canvass shows 
that only one-fifth of the cows included in the examination exceeded this 
amount, while the general average is 50 pounds below it. If these figures 
are taken as a fair index of the average production throughout the state 
then it would seem that the dairy industry in Connecticut is far less profitable 
than it ought to be. 

It is not difficult to discover sufficient reason for such poor showing, 
locally and generally, on the part of Connecticut herds. Improper and 
irrational feeding and poor care and management are causes in a great many 
instances in which the quality of the cows might assure better results under 
different feeding and care. There are records of experiments in which 
herds of very ordinary cows, under proper care and feeding, have produced 
surprising amounts of milk and butter, and have yielded handsome profits. 
But a little careful study of dairy herds leads to the conclusion that no 
inconsiderable part of the trouble lies in keeping cows that no system of 
feeding nor the best care and management could ever make profitable, 
at least so far as the dairvman is concerned. 



ILLINOIS. 
Agricultural Experiment Station at Urbana. 



Report by W. J. Fraser, Assistant Professor of Dairy Husbandry 



Rose. A grade cow, age 14 years, weight 1,225 pounds. Production 
for five lactation periods as follows: 

June 6, 1894, to February 24, 1896, time 1 year, 8 months, IS days— 
14,462.1 pounds milk, 703.89 pounds butterfat, 821.1 pounds butter. 

April 7, 1896, to December 6, 1897, time 1 year, 8 months— 14,536 
pounds milk, 762.19 pounds butterfat, 889.22 pounds butter. 

February 14, 1898, to February 27, 1899, time 1 year, 13 days— 12,497.5 
pounds milk, 506.93 pounds butterfat, 591.41 pounds butter. 

April 10, 1899, to July 2, 1900, time 1 year, 2 months, 22 days— 12,579.5 
pounds milk, 637.45 pounds butterfat, 743.69 pounds butter. 

August 27, 1900, to September 22, 1901, time 1 year, 25 days— 6,018 
pounds milk, 291.13 pounds butterfat, 339.65 pounds butter. 

Description: Wedge shape as viewed from top and front; general 
appearance robust; head broad between eyes, well dished, quite fine; eyes 



246 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



large, bright, prominent; horns good length, small, fine; muzzle large; neck 
long, quite fine, well attached to shoulders and head; back straight, strong; 
tail, large, fine; switch large; withers sharp; hips broad, prominent; good 
length from hip points to thurl bones; chest very deep; ribs far apart, well 
sprung; abdomen very large; legs well shaped, strong; hide medium, loose; 
hair medium; secretions abundant, yellow; udder large, capacious, well 




ROSE— A GRADE COW. 
Produced 658.9 Pounds Butter in One Year. 



balanced; teats good size, easily milked, well placed; milk veins large, tor- 
tuous, few small branches; temperament very active, sensible, maternal. 



ZUIDER ZEE AGNES. 

Description: Wedge shape as viewed from top, side and front; gen- 
eral appearance hardy; head fine, broad between eyes, well dished, clean 
cut; muzzle large; eyes medium, quite prominent; horns good length, small; 
neck long, slim, well attached to head and shoulders; back straight, strong; 
tail long, fine; switch large; withers sharp; loin strong; hips broad, promi- 
nent; good length from hip points to thurl bones; chest. lacking in depth; ribs 
large, far apart, well sprung; abdomen large, well shaped; hide loose, pliable; 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS ILLINOIS. 



247 



secretion abundant; udder very large, well balanced, good quality; teats well 
placed, good sized, easily milked; milk veins large, tortuous. Age, 5 years; 
Weight 1,250 pounds. 

First lactation period, one year, produced 11,364.2 pounds milk, 390.77 
pounds butterfat, 455.9 pounds butter. 

First six months of second lactation period produced 8,280 pounds 
milk, 277.31 pounds butterfat, 323.53 pounds butter. 

Yield for one day, 70 pounds milk. 

Average yield for 30 days, 68 pounds milk. 




ZUIDER ZEE AGNES-HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN. 
Produced 455.9 Pounds Butter in One Year at Four Y'ears Old. 



TINA CLAY'S PIETERTJE BELL. 



Description: Wedge shape as viewed from top, side and front; gen- 
eral appearance hardy; head broad between eyes, fairly well dished; eyes 
large, bright, prominent; muzzle large; horns small, long; neck long, slim 
and well attached to shoulders and head; back straight, strong; tail long, 
fine; switch large; withers quite sharp; loin strong; hips broad, prominent; 
length from hip points to thurl bone fair; chest lacking in depth; ribs far 
apart, well sprung; abdomen large; legs strong, well shaped; hide rather 
thin and loose; secretions quite abundant; udder large; capacious, fair 



248 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



quality, slightly cut up between the teats, somewhat fleshy; teats large; 
milk veins large, quite straight, unbranched; temperament nervous. Age 
12 years. Weight 1,200 pounds. Production for one year — 12,410.9 
pounds milk, 414.68 pounds butterfat, 483.79 pounds butter. 

The production of two other cows as recorded at the station is given 
as follows: 

Jockemke. Holstein-Friesian, imported. From June 19, 1895, to 
June 18, 1896, time one year — 15,070.1 pounds of milk, 56S.63 pounds but- 
terfat, 663.4 pounds butter. 




TINA CLAY'S PIETERTJE BELL-HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN, 
Produced 483.79 Pounds Butter in One Year. 



Exile's Torment. Jersey. First lactation period, time 1 year, 5 months 
— 7,620.4 pounds milk, 412.43 pounds butterfat, 481.17 pounds butter. 
Second lactation period, first 6 months — 4,586.8 pounds milk, 237.38 pounds 
butterfat, 269.94 pounds butter. 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS INDIANA. 

INDIANA. 



249 



Agricultural Experiment Station at Lafayette. 



Report by C. S. Plumb, Director. 



The Indiana station has owned several very superior cows, although 
we have no continuous year's test of both milk and butterfat that will 
show the best capacity of these individuals. At the present time there are 
four animals of interest in the herd, two being Holstein-Friesians that have 




JERSEY COW l - EARLY MORN" 506,661. 

made records which have placed them in the advanced registry of the Hol- 
stein-Friesian Association of North America, and two Jerseys with recorded 
tests in the butter books of the American Jersey Cattle Club. The follow- 
ing records of two cows may be of interest to readers of this book: 

Early Morn was a daughter of Ruby's Harry, 15,664, a son of Fancy's 
Harry, 9,777, that was killed in a railroad wreck before his merits as a bull 
became known. She was from Pinky Spry, 18,316, a daughter of Tormentor 



250 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



3,533 imp. On the sire's side, Early Morn was also a great granddaughter 
of Tormentor, through Ruby's Torment, her granddam. 

Early Morn was dropped April 4, 1887, and came into the possession 
of the Indiana Station in December, 1890, where she remained until her 
death in May, 1899. She was a large Jersey, having weighed nearly 1,300 
pounds in her time. Her udder was very superior, the front part being 
nearly perfect, the hind part however, not being quite as full as it shotild 
be. Her milk veins were simply fair. The udder was very elastic and 




HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN COW "MANADA PURDUE 3rd," 50,4S:S 



milked down well. She always carried plenty of flesh, and had fine hand- 
ling quality. 

In 1897 a careful record was made of Early Morn's work. During 
that period, beginning with April 13, ending January 13, 1898, during a 
period of 275 days, she produced 5,830.3 pounds of milk. Samples from 
each milking, by Babcock test, showed 330.60 pounds of pure butterfat, 
equal to 1.2 pound per day. For the first five and one-half months of this 
period of lactation all of her cream was saved and churned separately, the 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS — INDIANA. 251 

milk being run through a separator, and made 248 pounds and one-half ounce 
of butter, worked'and salted one ounce to the pound. 

From March 12 to 19, 1895, a special test was made of Early Morn, and 
this was reported to the American Jersey Cattle Club, and is in the pub- 
lished tests of the club. During the test(7 days) she produced 248.8 pounds 
of milk from which was produced 17 pounds 13| ounces of butter, worked 
and salted one ounce to the pound. She consumed during the trial 84 
pounds of hominy, 42 pounds of bran, 21 pounds of oil meal, 55 pounds of 
clover hay, 193 pounds of silage. 

For 11 months ending January, 1894, she produced 6,737.7 pounds of 
milk, an average of 20.9 pounds a day, while for 396 days ending in 1896 
she made 7,754.8 pounds, an average of 19+ pounds a day. 

MANADA PURDUE 3RD. 

This Holstein-Friesian cow was dropped at the Indiana Agricultural 
Experiment Station on November 16, 1894, and was sired by Pietertje 
Netherland Artis, 13203, her dam being Manada Purdue, 22043. The sire 
was by Pietertje Netherland 12804, a son of Netherland Duke 1571 H. H. B., 
and Pietertje 3rd, 11244, while on the dam's side he was a grandson of 
Prince of Artis, 2479 H. H. B. His six nearest female relatives averaged 
about 18,000 pounds of milk a year each. 

On the dam's side, the granddam of Manada Purdue 3rd, was an im- 
ported cow by the name of Manada, that was a very fine example of the 
dairy type, and withal a superior Holstein, exceptinginthe quality of her milk. 

On January 30 of this year, Manada Purdue 3rd dropped a bull calf 
which on the day of birth weighed 125 pounds, the heaviest calf dropped 
at Purdue University in 11 years. On Monday morning, February 24, a 
test was made of this cow for seven days. During this period she produced 
489 pounds of milk which by Babcock test showed 16.72 pounds pure butter- 
fat. Her milk was run through a separator, and from the cream in two 
churnings were made 19 pounds three ounces of unworked butter, and 17 
pounds 15 £ ounces of worked butter, salted one ounce to the pound. The 
greatest amount of milk she produced in one day was 75.4 pounds on Tuesday, 
which showed 2.6 pounds pure butterfat. 

During this trial she consumed 63£ pounds of clover hay, 300 pounds 
of silage, 60 pounds of bran, 42 pounds of gluten meal, 28 pounds of hominy 
feed and seven pounds of oil meal. On the basis of figures adopted by the 
Holstein-Friesian Association of North America, the cost of this feed would 
be $1.32. This is, however, considerable lower than prevailing prices for 
feed this winter would make it. 

A year's test prior to 1902 of this cow has not been made, as her period 
of lactation has been broken into to use as a nurse cow on some show stock, 
but during 1902 she is under careful test in every way to measure up her 
working capacity, samples of her daily milk being subjected to Babcock 
test. She is a cow however that will yield a good margin of profit over the 
cost of production. 



252 



THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK.. 

KANSAS. 



Agricultural Experiment Station at Manhattan. 



Report by Professor D. H. Otis, Dairy Husbandman. 



Of the cows presented under this report Professor Otis says: 

"We send you some pictures of our best scrub cows, together with their 

records. I would say that the cows were common cows picked up here 

and there over the country, and we have no information as to their age or 

orevious treatment, before coming to college. The general type is 




SCRUB COW No. 33. 
Year's Record— Milk, 8,642; test, 3.7; butterfat, 320.59. 

given in the picture, and I do not know as I can add anything in the way 
of characteristics that would be of particular value; they are simply 'cows. 
They have made good records for common stock. According to Secre- 
tary Coburn's reports the average Kansas cow produces less than 90 pounds 
of butter a year. I made an investigation four years ago in one of 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS KANSAS. 



253 



the best creamery districts of the state and found that the average cow of 
82 different herds visited produced 125 pounds of butter a year." 

Professor Otis has "picked these cows up here and there" and neces- 
sarily from among those furnishing the average of 90 to 125 pounds butter 
yearly. The excellent record these have made while at the college, is, there- 
fore, mostly the result of better care and handling, showing in a practical 
manner what a dairyman can do with his own herd by giving thought to 




SCRUB COW No. 72. 
Year's Record— Milk, 7,905 pounds; test, 4.27 per cent.; butterfat, 340.12. 

the cow's needs in the way of foods to stimulate milk secretion and the 
comfort of correct stable management. Professor Otis' letter, the pictures 
that follow, and the yearly records of milk and butter production of these 
"picked up scrub cows" will tell their own story to the patron who is honestly 
trying to improve his herd and his dairying methods. 




KANSAS -SCRUB COW No. 20. 
Year's Record— Milk, 9,116 pounds; test, 4.21 per cent.; butterfat, 383.T. 



254 



TKSTED DAIRY ANIMALS KENTUCKY. 

KENTUCKY. 



255 



Agricultural Experiment Station at Lexington. 



Report by D. W. May, Animal Husbandry. 



The station owns a herd of Jersey cattle, containing among other good 
animals, Dollie's Valentine, 105049. This cow was dropped February 14, 
1894, and is out of Dollie Fay, 105047, by Oonan's Tormentor Pogis, 30505. 
Dollie's Valentine has made 18 pounds 1 ounce of butter per week and a 




DOLLIE'S VALENTINE 1 1)5,049— JERSEY. 
Produced in One Year 10,218 Pounds of Milk, Yielding 6TU.5 Pounds Butter. 

yearly record of 10,218 pounds of milk and 676.5 pounds of butter. This 
represents an average of 27.99 pounds of milk and 1.85 pounds of butter 
daily for one year. 

I send a photograph of Guenon's Lad, 54422. This imported bull was 
owned by the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station. He was dropped 
January 21, 1897. He took first prize at the Interstate Fair at Louisville 
in the fall of 1901, winning over the prize bull of the Pan-American Exposi- 
tion of the same year. Shortly after this he was sold for $3,550. * 







KENTUCKY— GUENON'S LAD 54,422— JERSEY. 
Prize Bull at Interstate Fair, Louisville, Ky., 1901. Sold for $3,550. 



256 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS MARYLAND. 257 

MARYLAND. 



Agricultural Experiment Station at College Park. 



Report by H. J. Patterson, Director. 



There is no doubt but that good care and feeding of cows, system- 
atically carried out from year to year, will change their individuality and 
cause many cows to take a place among good and even extraordinary ani- 
mals that are now occupying places of indifference and obsctirity simply 
because they do not have a proper chance. The force of this is illustrated 
by the following records given of cows Nos. 7 and 15> Further details 
of similar results with many other cows have been published in bulletin No. 
69 of the Maryland Station. 

Cow No. 7 was purchased by the Maryland Experiment Station from a 
herd of average cows for the state, and, as far as could be judged, she was 
no better than the average of the herd. Her ability at that time is shown 
by her first year's record at the station, as she produced but 258 pounds of 
butter, which is likely better than she had been doing before as she was much 
better fed. She was at this time in what might usually be called the prime 
of her life for dairy purposes. In the five years she has been owned by the 
station her yearly butter yield has constantly increased, to 268 pounds the 
second year; 357 pounds the third year; 362 pounds the fourth year; and 
442 pounds the fifth year. She is a high-grade Jersey and, as can be seen 
by the illustration, decidedly not of the beef type. She is a very dainty and 
comparatively light feeder, which is her serious fault, and, while she does not 
produce a large quantity of milk, it is very rich in fat. 

No. 15 was purchased by the Maryland Experiment Station from a 
Baltimore consignment of western cattle. When she was purchased she 
was of a decidedly beefy tendency, and the record of her first year's butter 
yield at the station shows her to have been a very poor cow from the dairy 
standpoint at that time. The first year she was owned by the station she 
produced 183 pounds of butter; the second year, 286 pounds; the third 
year, 359 pounds; the fourth year, 338 pounds; and the fifth year, 386 
pounds. The illustration shows her to have Hereford blood, which is very 
likely the predominant strain, as when she is bred to the most prepotent 
Jersey or Guernsey bulls, her calves invariably are colored like the Hereford 
breed without any markings whatever from the sire. Since purchasing 
by the station, No. 15 has lost all of her tendencies to lay on flesh. 

The sketches sent by the station are of cows which were selected as 
being average animals for this state, and it is doubtful if they had remained 
under the same conditions as that from which they were taken, whether 
their best yearly yield would have been any better than their records for 
the first year they were owned by the station. It simply shows what can 
be made from a great many average cows found on dairy farms if they are 
given the proper treatment. 




258 



b «*- 




259 



260 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

MICHIGAN. 



Agricultural Experiment Station at St. Anthony Park. 



Report by C. D. Smith, Director. 



Yearly records are reported by Professor Smith of three of the best 
cows of the station herd as follows: 

Belle Sarcastic, Holstein-Friesian, H. B. 23039, produced in one 
year, 21,075.8 pounds of milk containing 632.78 pounds fat. In a lactation 
period of sixteen months gave 27,626.3 pounds milk containing 827.22 
pounds fat. 

Houwtje D., Holstein-Friesian, H. B., 12005, produced in one year 
19,025 pounds milk containing 660.14 pounds fat. 

Rosa Bonheur 5th, Holstein-Friesian, H. B. 11227, produced in one 
day 106.75 pounds milk, and in 10 days, 2,989 pounds milk containing 
26 pounds fat.. 



MINNESOTA. 



Agricultural Experiment Station at St. Anthony Park. 



Report by Professor T. L. Haecker. 



COWS FOR THE DAIRY. 

The Minnesota Experiment Station has completed the eleventh year 
in which complete records have been kept of the amount of milk and butterfat 
yielded by each cow at every milking and the amount and kind of food 
given each day, with its chemical composition. Some of the discoveries 
made by this comprehensive and careful work have been referred to in the 
chapter on economical feeding of dairy cows, in which the subject is treated 
from the feeder's standpoint. No reference is made to the kind or type of 
cow that makes the best return in the dairy, and to make the Creamery Pa- 
trons' Handbook a more complete guide for the dairyman, a little definite 
information on this subject seems desirable. 

Every farmer has observed that there are good cows and poor cows in 
every breed. Some cows yield a large mess of milk when fresh, but soon 
begin to shrink in flow; some give only a medium yield when fresh, but are 
very persistent milkers; some make a very creditable showing in yield, but 
the milk contains a small percent, of butterfat. Some that are not adapted 
for dairy work, have, under a forced process of feeding, given satisfactory 
and even large returns for a year or two and then have died or failed to 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS MINNESOTA. 261 

respond to further forcing, but-unfortunately nothing is said or written in 
regard to this particular phase of the work. 

The records of the station referred to show that a test covering a 
short period, or even one or two years, throws but little light on the kind 
of cow that is best adapted for dairy work. This is clearly demonstrated 
in the year's test of the Guernsey cow, Sweet Briar, and the common cow, 
Fairy. 

Lbs. Lbs. 
one year's record. Milk. Butter. 

Sweet Briar, Guernsey 3501 206 

Fairy, Common 8867 384 

Lbs. Lbs. 

AVERAGE OF FIVE YEAR'S RECORD. Milk. Butter. 

Sweet Briar 6501 380 

Fairy 6544 286 

Had the record ended with only one year's test the common cow would 
have been declared the better, but by continuing the test during the five 
years it was found that Sweet Briar was by far the better butter cow. Both 
entered the station herd when they were six years of age. Fairy remained 
six years, when she passed her usefulness, being 12 years old and failing to 
breed. Her average yearly yield during her life was 6331 pounds of milk 
and 273 pounds of butter, while Sweet Briar is now in her 17th year and is 
due to calve on New Year's day. Her yield for the ten years has been as 
follows : 

SWEET BRIAR PRODUCTION FOR PAST TEN YEARS. 

Year. Milk. % Fat. Butter Fat. Butter. 

1891-2 6510.3 5.22 339.59 396.19 

1892-3 7352.0 5.00 367.48 428.72 

3 893-4 4515.6 5.03 227.40 265.30 

1894-5 7534.1 4.96 373.50 435.75 

1895-6 6604.0 4.86 321.28 374.83 

1896-7 7770.9 5.41 420.86 491.00 

1897-8 3501.3 5.06 177.10 206.62 

1898-9 5301.9 4.95 262.74 306.53 

1899-0 5491.7 4.76 261.58 305.18 

1900-1 7160.5 4.27 305.75 356.71 



Average 6174.2 4.95 305.73 356.68 

From this table we see that even under exceptionally good care, cows 
will vary considerably from year to year in the flow and quality of milk, 
and that it requires several years of careful and accurate testing to determine 
the value of a cow in the dairy. Sweet Briar is doubtless the only cow in 



262 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



America whose every mess of milk has been weighed and tested separately 
for eleven consecutive years. She has completed her 15th lactation, but 
the last, being for year 1901-2 has not yet been computed. During the 14th 
lactation her yield of butter was just equal to the average for the last ten 




GUERNSEY COW-SWEET BRIAR. 

years given in the table. She is still sound and gives promise of doing good 
work the coming year. 

THE TYPE OF COW ADAPTED TO PROFITABLE DAIRYING. 

"While, as has been shown, it is not possible to determine the degree of 
usefulness a cow may have by a short test, or even a year, it has been defin- 
itely determined that it is an easy matter to measure her value for the 




A GOOD DAIRY COW. 



dairy by her form or conformation. If a cow has a roomy, deep middle piece, 
she is invariably a good feeder. Now, if she is a good feeder and does not 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS MINNESOTA. 



263 



have the disposition or heredity to convert her food into meat, she will, 
if carefully handled and well fed, be a good milker. She may not be a large 
butter producer, because that depends upon the quality of her milk — which 
is a matter of heredity, and no person has yet been able to tell by the 
mere inspection or handling of an animal what that quality may be; but if 
she is spare in conformation, and a good feeder, she may be safely selected 
as a profitable cow. 

The cows of this type have, in all careful and impartial trials, covering 
several years, shown their great superiority in the dairy, irrespective of breed. 
It is with cows, very much as with horses. Now and then one can find a 
blocky, heavy-boned horse that has the elements of speed in him, but he 
soon gets out of wind and is distanced in the race. So a cow of beef heredity 
and form, may, for a short time, do creditable dairy work, but she has thus 
far failed to show staying qualities. To show the comparative usefulness 
of these two types we again refer to the Minnesota tables covering 20 yearly 
records of each type with the following averages: 

Lbs. Lbs. 
Milk. Butter. 

Dairy type cows 7876 430 

General purpose cows : . . 6035 295 



In favor of dairy type 1841 1 35 

Valuing the skim milk at 15 cents per 100 pounds, and allowing one- 
eighth of the milk for cream, there is an excess of $2.42 in favor of the 

dairy type cow for skim milk, and 
u& .,. allowing 16 cents net for butter, the 

135 lbs. that the dairy type cows gave 
over that given by beefy cows, amounts 
to $21.65, making a total of $24.07 
as the amount the dairy cow earn', an- 
nually over and above the yearly earn- 
ings of the dual purpose cow. 

It is, however, recognized that the 
average farmer, or even the average 
creamery patron, does not make dairy- 
ing a specialty, and that farmers and 
creamery patrons have, as a rule, common cows of mixed breeding. It is a 
question whether the special dairy cow would give as large returns under 
the care ordinarily bestowed upon cows, as they have made under the care 
of dairy specialists; be that as it may, the cows of the creamery patron, as 
a rule, arc common cows, and he is interested, or should be, in their possi- 
bilities. The records referred to show that the common cow under proper 
care will give, on an average, 6035 pounds of milk and 295 pounds of butter 
per year, while statistics show that the average vield of the cows of the 




FAIRY— A MEDIUM DAIRY COW. 




264 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

country is just half that amount. This means that the common cow of the 
country would give twice as much milk and butter if she received as good 
care and were as well fed as she should be. To be conservative, and within 
the range of that which could be easily accomplished by feeding judiciously 
grains and roughage grown on the farm, let us assume that under proper 
care cows would give 5000 pounds of milk and 250 pounds of butter. This 
would net the patron $40, while a yield of 150 pounds nets him only $24, 
making a difference in the receipts for butter alone of $16 per cow, as- 
suming that the butter nets him only 16 cents a pound. Let every creamery 
patron apply this to his own herd, study these methods and see if it will 
not pay him to handle and feed his cows properly. We are milking about 

16,000,000 cows, and an addition of 
$16 per cow per year would increase 
the income of the owners by $256,000,- 
000. A sum certainly worth striv- 
ing for. 

There are great possibilities in 
store for those who wish to make dairy- 
ing a specialty and are willing to de- 
vote their energies and brains to the 
A POOR dairy COW. business. In the long run nothing 

leads more surely to a competency, but it demands close attention to learn 
just how to treat cows so that the largest return may be secured. 

Do not begin with pedigreed stock, but lay the foundation of your 
herd with good common cows. Place at the head a good registered sire 
of the breed you prefer. Thus you should serve your apprenticeship in 
dairying. Gradually as they pass from the herd because of age or your 
mistakes, their places can be filled by the grades, and as these begin to pass 
the period of usefulness and you have become a trained handler and feeder, 
you will be in a position to lay the foundation for a profitable herd of full- 
bloods. Buy a few registered females and soon you will be a successful 
breeder and dairyman. 

If you have made judicious selections of registered stock, be very shy 
about going outside of your own herd for a sire. In selecting one, see that 
he is roomy in the middle and has light quarters; that his dam is a good 
performer, is easy milking, has long teats well placed on an udder well 
rounded out in the fore quarters. He should have a straight and high tail-head, 
eyes quick and expressive, and poise of body stately. If the offspring are 
satisfactory, keep him during his lifetime and then let one of his best sons 
take his place, as judicious linebreeding has always brought best results 
with dairy stock. A bull should have a ring put in his nose as a yearling, 
and should always be handled with a staff. Never put yourself in a posi- 
tion where he can do you harm, no matter how gentle he may seem to be. 
Treat him kindly but firmly, give him plenty of exercise, but never give him 
the freedom of yard or pasture with the herd. 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS — MISSOURI. 265 



MISSOURI. 



Agricultural College and Experiment Station at Columbia. 



Report by Prof. C. H. Eckles, in Charge of Dairy Husbandry. 



This station has maintained a good herd of dairy cows for several 
years, the average yearly income of which has been .$90 per cow for 
butter alone. The records of individual cows are not yet extensive 
enough to be of general interest: Carefully gathered statistics show the 
average Missouri cow to produce 4,000 pounds of milk per year and 140 
pounds of butter. 



MONTANA. 



Agricultural Experiment Station at Bozeman. 



Report by Prof. R. S. Shaw. 

A dairy department has only recently been established at this station. 
Some dairy herd studies were begun during the past April. This depart- 
ment has not been neglected because of a lack of natural dairy condi- 
tions in the state, but through need of funds for proper equipment. A 
small grant made by the state legislature at its last meeting has made 
the erection of a building possible. 

The dairy building, which is now complete, furnishes quarters for 
butter and cheese making, and the equipment is such that instruction 
can be given in both lines. Under the same roof a laboratory, class 
room, office, and storage and curing rooms have been provided. The 
equipment is such that both instruction and investigation work can be 
carried on to good advantage. 

The natural conditions presented in western Montana are particu- 
larly favorable to the dairy industry. There is an abundance of nu- 
tritious pasture, and of water and the most suitable climatic conditions. 
This industry can be expected to develop rapidly in the- state. 



266 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

NEBRASKA. 



Agricultural Experiment Station at Lincoln. 



Report by A. L. Haecker, Professor of Dairy Husbandry. 



The Nebraska Experiment Station for the past six years has kept 
accurate records of a dairy herd ranging from ten to fifteen cows. The 
herd until recent years has been largely composed of high-grade Jersey cows, 
but during the past year a number of Holsteins have been added. The 
following individuals illustrate type and conformation of some of the 
specimens of the herd: 




ANNIE-HIUH GRADE JERSEY. 



The record will show this little cow to be a highly developed dairy 
specimen. Her four years' record was made on light feed, consisting in 
the summer of grass only, and in the winter months of alfalfa-hay and beets 
for roughness, corn and bran for grain. Her development is strikingly 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS — NEBRASKA. 



267 



strong as an economic producer, but she is just a little too delicate, and un- 
fortunately was taken sick in the fifth year of her record. She is a high- 
grade, having about fifteen-sixteenths Jersey blood, and weighs about 
750 pounds. 

Axxie — Four Years' Record. 



ear. 


Pounds Milk. 


°o fat. 


P 


Dunds buttcrfat. 


Pounds btitter 


1897 


6,977.25 


4.49 




313.39 


365 . 62 


1898 


6.907.19 


4 . 55 




314.64 


367.08 


1899 


5,250.39 


4.56 




239.41 


279.31 


1900 


7,028.30 


4 . 50 




316.27 


368.98 




CORA— HIGU GRADE JERSEY 



"A little cow with a big record." This is the title we have given Cora 
She is also a high-grade Jersey, and weighs from 700 to 800 pounds. She 
is still in the herd and I believe is making her largest record this year. She 
has much the same type and conformation as the cow Annie, but is a little 
more thrifty and hardy, holds her head a little higher and seems to have a 
stronger constitution. 



26S 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



Cora — Five Years' Record. 







Pounds 


Pounds 


Cost of feed 


Year. 


Pounds milk. 


butterfat. 


butter. 


per year. 


1897 


8,073 


352 


411 


$25.27 


1898 


7,302 


313 


365 


$24.92 


1899 


7,099 


295 


345 


$20 . 50 


1900 


7,088 


298 


348 


$26.20 


1901 


7,53.5 


354 


383 


$28 . 20 




BESSIE MCKINLEY— FULL BLOODED HOLSTEIN. 



The cow Bessie McKinley is a full-blooded Holstein cow, No. 46141 
H. F. H. B. This cow has not been in the herd long enough to obtain a 
yearly record, but the following weekly record will show her to be an ex- 
cellent dairy cow. She is a large animal, weighing between 1,200 and 1,300 
pounds, and has a strong and vigorous constitution. She is a heavy feeder 
and I think will make an exceptionally good yearly producer. Record for 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS NEBRASKA. 



269 



seven days starting October 6 and ending October 12, 1901: Pounds 
of milk, 363. Average test, 3.9. Pounds buttcrfat, 14.16. Pounds 
butter, 16.52. 




JUNO— HIGH GRADE JERSEY. 



The cow Juno has been given here to illustrate a type lacking capacity 
and having the wrong conformation for a dairy cow. Juno has a record 
of 86 pounds of butter in one year. After such a performance it was natur- 
ally thought best not to keep her, so we have but one year's record to show. 
She was a healthy cow, strong and vigorous, but steer-like in shape, having 
heavy shoulders and crops, with small barrel and undeveloped mammary 
glands. Juno was also a high-grade Jersey and her breeding is much the 
same as the cows Annie and Cora. This is a good illustration of the import- 
ance of judging cows by type rather than by breed. 



270 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



The cow Diana 2nd is a high-grade Jersey of rather stocky build. She 
weighs about 1,100 pounds. She gives a small flow of milk, but 
it has a high per cent of butterfat. She is inclined to carry 
a good deal of flesh, which makes ber butter rather expensive when com- 




DIANA 2nd-HIGL£ GRADE JERSEY. 



pared with the butter of highly developed dairy types. She is a strong, 
healthy cow and a large feeder, but is disposed to go dry after eight or nine 
months of lactation. The following record was made last year, which is a 
good average but not the best: — Pounds milk, 4,971. Pounds butterfat, 
261. Pounds butter, 304. Cost of keeping, $32.10. 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS — OREGON. 
OREGON. 



271 



Agricultural Experiment Station at Corvallis. 



Report by F. L. Kent. Assistant Agriculturist. 



The herd at the college contains a number of very promising young 
cows, but as a whole it is not typically representative of the best in the 
state. What is supposed to be the best among the dairy herd records of 
Oregon is submitted as follows: 




"THE BEST JERSEY BULL IN OREGON." 
Inda Landseer Rioter, A. J. C. C. 52,103. 

Inda Landseer Rioter, A. J. C. C, 52103. Sired by Miller and Sibley's 
bull Rioter of St. L. 8th; dam, Inda Landseer 2nd — a cow that gave over CO 
pounds of milk per day, and made over 30 pounds of butter in seven days 



272 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK, 



in her four year old form. Sweepstakes bull at the Oregon State Fair 
in 1901. Property of D. H. Looney, Jefferson, Marion County, Oregon. 
Said by men of wide experience to have no superior among the Jersey 
bulls of the United States. 




BELLE JEFFERSON 136,329— J ERSEY. 
Has a Milk Record of 52 Pounds a Day onGrass. Butter Record. 21.5 Pounds in Seven Days. 



Two cows are shown from what is said to be the best Jersey herd on the 
Pacific Coast, that of the Crystal Springs farm of the W. S. Ladd estate, 
Portland, Oregon. The herd comprises 100 head of selected Jerseys. 
Mr. F. E. McEldowney, manager, has made several trips east, each time- 
purchasing one or two carloads of choice animals. There are many cows 
in this herd that are noted for their large production of milk and butter. 
Two of the best cows, Belle Jefferson and Golden Glow, are shown in the 
illustrations. 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS OREGON. 



273 



A registered Jersey herd owned by H. West, Scappoose, Oregon, shows 
an average production per year per cow as follows: 

1896—361 pounds butter; 1897—386 pounds; 1898—392 pounds; 
1899—428 pounds butter, 6,775 pounds milk; 1900 — 452 pounds butter 
as the average per cow in that year. 




GOLDEN GLOW 129,238— IMPORTED JERSEY. 

Fed on Ordinary Rations Produced 40.5 Pounds Milk in One Day. Butter, 18 Pounds 
3 ounces in Seven Days. 

The average production per cow per year for the entire state is 150 to 
200 pounds butter, with a number of herds showing averages above 300 
pounds per cow annually. Some good records of cows of Ayrshire, Hol- 
stein, and Jersey breeds of the college herd are given as follows: 

Topsy. Pure bred Ayrshire. Milk in one year, 6,341 pounds, butter 
304 pounds. 

Martha. Pure bred Holstein. Milk in one year, 9,288 pounds, 
1 /utter 349 pounds. 

Francis Stevens. Registered Jersey. Milk in one year 7,252 pounds, 
butter 381 pounds. 



274 



THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 



Agricultural Experiment Station at State College. 



Report by Harry Hayward, assistant professor of dairy husbandry. 



Professor Hayward reports the best cow of the station herd as a grade 
Guernsey, "Ramona", who in a lactation period of 369 days betewen calves 
gave 10,351.6 pounds of milk testing an average of 4.367 per cent, fat, or 
452.1 pounds, equivalent to 527.47 pounds churned butter. This on the 




ADELAIDE OF ST. LAMBERT 73,652— JERSEY. 
Produced 82% Pouuds of Milk in One Day. 

ordinary feed of the herd which consisted of eight pounds of grain a day 
with soiling crops in summer and hay and corn stover in winter. Ramona 
is described as wedge shaped, deep through the heart, down well in the 
flanks; large roomy abdomen and excellent udder, with a well developed 
milk system. 



TESTED DAiRY ANIMALS — PENNSYLVANIA. 275 

The illustration presented is of the noted Jersey cow Adelaide of St. 
Lambert, a member of the Miller & Sibley herd, at Prospect Hill Stock 
Farm, Franklin, Pennsylvania, and of whom the owners write as follows: 
"For the 31 consecutive days ending June 24, 1898, she gave a total of 
2,005} pounds of milk. During this period she was milked three times daily 
at intervals of eight hours. Every milking was witnessed by at least two 
persons, and sometimes as many as six persons were present. The cow 
weighs 1,002 pounds, hence she gave in the month over twice her weight. 
Her best day for us was 75 J pounds, but her best record for her former owner, 
Mr. Henry Harrison, of Cannington, Province of Ontario, was 82f pounds for 
one day during the month of May, 1897. She holds the world's Jersey 
milk record for the period of a day, two weeks, three weeks, four weeks and 
thirty-one days. Her sire is Comely's Stoke Pogis 19327 and her dam 
Princess Minette 24042. Seventy-five per cent, of the blood of Adelaide 
of St. Lambert is what is known as St. Lambert blood. She is descended 
from Stoke Pogis 3rd on four different lines and has 31}-% of his direct 
blood. It is worthy of note in passing that all the highest milk records 
in the Jersey breed have been made by animals of very similar breeding. 
For a time Ida of St. Lambert held the world's Jersey record. She was a 
daughter of Stoke Pogis 3rd. La Petite Mere 2nd and Mathilde 4th, who 
for a time each held the world's Jersey milk record for a year, were both 
daughters of Stoke Pogis 1259, the sire of Stoke Pogis 3rd and Stoke Pogis 
5th. A granddaughter of the latter bull, Jimp, holds the world's Jersey' 
milk record for the period of a week. The latter bull also leads all other 
bulls that ever lived in the number of granddaughters with standard butter 
tests. We know of 183 and probably there are more. 

"Adelaide of St. Lambert was dropped January 9, 1890. She has an 
enormous barrel, the largest we ever saw on a Jersey, and naturally a vora- 
cious appetite and excellent digestion. By the Babcock test she indicated 
to us at several different times that she was making from 4\ to 41 pounds 
of butter a day. About a year after her great milk yield, when she was not 
giving nearly so much, we set her milk by itself for a week and churned it 
and she made of butter when salted one ounce to the pound and well worked 
ready for market 21 pounds, 5| ounces. 

"The photograph was made by a local photographer and the plate not 
retouched. It will be seen that the fore udder is full and symmetrical, 
teats large and well placed and that the rear udder also rounds out very 
nicely and comes high up behind." 



276 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



SOUTH CAROLINA. 



Agricultural Experiment Station at Clemson College. 



Report by C. M. Conner, assistant agriculturist. 



I am sending a photograph of one of our Jerseys, Clemson 's Beauty, 
together with her milk record. We have very few good cows in this state. 
Dairying has not made much headway here yet. The average butter pro- 
duction per cow in this state is very low, not over 150 pounds. Every effort 




CLEMSON S BEAUTY 73.444-JERSEY. 
Produced 415.3 Pounds Butter in One Year. 



is being made to get the people interested in dairying and in a measure the 
efforts have been successful. Clemson 's Beauty was sired by St. Bernard 
No. 4,849. She was six years old when the test was made and was fed just 
like the rest of the herd, no effort being made to force her. She produced 
445.3 pounds of butter in the year. 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS SOUTH DAKOTA. 2l7 

SOUTH DAKOTA. 



Agricultural Experiment Station at Brookings. 



Report by A. H. Wheaton, dairyman of the station. 



We have no cows on the college farm at present from which to quote 
records, so the best I can do is to send a report of our herd as tested in the 
year from January 1, 1893, to January 1, 1894. The milk was weighed 
from each cow at each milking and an accurate account kept of same for 
the entire period. 

The whole herd have been kept on prairie grass for pasturage, but were 
fed some fodder corn when grass began to get short from drouth. While 
on grass they were not fed grain except, perhaps, a pint each of bran and 
shorts night and morning as an inducement for them to take their places 
in the stable to be milked. 

In winter they were fed on fodder corn and millet for hay, and when we 
had it, ten pounds of bran and shorts to each cow per day, and when the 
days were warm enough not to freeze, they were allowed to run in the yard 
and to ricks of fresh straw. But when the weather would not permit of 
outdoor exercise they were fed straw at noon in the stable, which seemed 
to be highly relished by them. The stables are in a basement where the 
temperature is easily kept above freezing. No hay was fed them during the 
winter. These cows have not been crowded in any way, the object being 
to keep them as nearly as possible as a good, prudent dairy farmer should 
keep cows in Dakota, and the figures given in the table below are not in- 
tended to show the best possible results obtainable, but to show the prac- 
tical results of keeping a herd of good dairy cows as any ordinary farmer can 
keep them if he will. The writer believes that he is thoroughly acquainted 
with the conditions surrounding the average farmer in this state and be- 
lieves it to be the duty of this department to try those experiments first 
which may be of the most practical benefit to him, and most easily reached 
by him, with the means he may have at his command, with as little extra 
outlay as possible. 

Following is a brief report of seven of the best cows in the herd. 
Only those that produced above 300 pounds butter in the year are here 
listed. 

America 1. Shorthorn, roan in color, six years, old; came fresh in 
May. Produced 8,066.09 pounds milk, test 4%, making 403.3 pounds 
butter. 



278 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

Maggie Hughes. Shorthorn, red in color, five years old; came fresh 
in April. Produced 5,840 pounds milk, test 5.5%, making 401.2 pounds of 
butter. 

Lauretta. A fine type of Guernsey, six years old; came fresh in 
March. Produced 6,129 pounds of milk, test 5%, making 383.06 pounds 
of butter. 

Lakeman Lass. Holstein Friesian, an imported cow, 10 years old; 
came fresh in December just prior to beginning the year's test. Produced 
8,032.14 pounds of milk, test 3.29%, making 330.12 pounds of butter. 

Mary Clay. Shorthorn, red color, nine years old; came fresh in June. 
Produced 5.774.06 pounds milk, test 4.52%, making 325.23 pounds butter. 

Lilly. Ayrshire, red and white spotted, seven years old; came fresh 
in May. Produced 5,268 pounds milk, test 4.93%, making 324.5 pounds 
butter. 

Hebron. Devon, dark red, five years old; came fresh in March. Pro- 
duced 4,570.15 pounds milk, test 5.65%, making 322.65 pounds butter. 



TENNESSEE. 



Agricultural Experiment Station at Knoxville. 



Report by Prof. Andrew M. Soule, Vice-Director and Agriculturist. 



There are some excellent herds in the dairies of Tennessee, from which 
some records may be of interest. 

The reports are from the Glencliff Farm, Nashville, Tennessee, and 
Ewell Farm, Spring Hill, Tennessee. 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS — TENNESSEE. 



279 



Rioter's Exile of St. Lambert, 48228 — the pure St. Lambert bull at 
head of Glencliff Farm herd of Jerseys, belonging to D. S. Williams of Nash- 
ville, Tennessee — is out of Letty Rioter 73475, a cow that produced 24 
pounds and two ounces of butter in seven days from 318 pounds of milk, 
and gave 1,183 pounds milk in 30 days — nearly 5j gallons daily. 

Individually he is a magnificent specimen of a vigorous dairy bull, and 




RIOTERS EXILE OF ST. LAMBERT 48,228— JERSEY. 

before he was five years old (he is now in his sixth year) he produced the 
following: tested daughters: 



Exile's Lady Mathilda #152,314 

Hugo Riotress Elf 152,126 

Exile's Monde Coquette 143,807 

Exile's Brier Coquette 151,536 

Rioter's Edith Hugo 142,248 

Vivienne's Allie Pogis 153,242 

Exile's Alexia 152,315 

Exile's Hugo Lassie 152,391 

Exile's Dido B 153,276 

Exile's Mary B 145,753 

Exile's Hugo Maiden 152,392 



Butter in seven days, 
lbs. oz. 
testing, 



23 

23 
23 
23 
23 
22 
22 
22 
22 
18 
15 



6 
3 
4 
1 
1 
6 
3 
3 
2* 

H 

2 



280 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



This is a result that no other bull ever attained at such an age, but need 
not be surprising when his breeding is considered. He is sired by Exile 
of St. Lambert, 13657, the sire of 94 tested daughters, which is more than 
any other bull ever produced. 

Letty Rioter was double granddaughter of Stoke Pogis 3d, one of the 
greatest sires that ever lived, and out of Lettie Coles 2d, who had a test of 
21 pounds 8 ounces of butter in 7 days, from 300 pounds 15 ounces of 
milk, and a year's record of 10,533 pounds of milk. 




TORMENTOR 3,533, AT NINE YEARS-IMP. JERSEY. 



Letty Rioter not only produced this wonderful bull (Rioter's Exile 
of St. Lambert) but also three superb daughters as follows: 

Butter in seven days 
lbs. oz. 

St .Lambert's Riotress, testing 24 6 

St. Lambert's Letty . " 22 8£ 

Riotress Signal " 21 5 J 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS — TENNESSEE. 



281 



Lctty Coles 2nd, 4S128, also produced three other high testing daughters. 
Is it any wonder that Rioter's Exile of St. Lambert should get high testing 
progeny? He traces seven times to Imported Stoke Pogis, ten times to 
imported Victor Hugo — the last named bull Governor Hoard is said to have 
pronounced the best dairy type and temperament he ever saw. 




IDAS STOKE POcUS 13,038. AT THREE YEARS-JERSEY. 

Dam was Ida of St. Lambert 241)90, whose Record was fi7 Pounds Milk in One Day, 455 Pounds 

8 Ounces in Seven Days. 



George C. Brown of Ewcll Farm, Spring Hill, Tennessee, sends photo- 
graphs of two noted Jersey bulls — Tormentor 3533 (shown on page 280) 
and Ida's Stoke Pogis 13658 — and one noted Jersey cow, Duchess of 
Bloomfield 3653, with this brief mention: 

"Tormentor sired 41 cows with standard butter tests and some 400 
to 500 of his descendants have standard records. 

'Ida's Stoke Pogis, cut down in the bloom of his life, still sired over 30 



282 



THE CREAMERY FATRON.S HANDBOOK. 



with records, and he has two granddaughters by a son of Tormentor that 
have official tests of over 32 pounds. 

"Duchess of Bloomfield had four tested daughters and five sons that 
were successful sires, and she did much for the breed by her wonderful 
milking qualities, combined with a singular beauty which attracted great 
attention, besides winning her many premiums." 




DUCHESS OF BLOOMFIELD 3,653— JERSE5T, 



A famous cow in the earlier history of the breed. Calved January 29, 
1874. In Gl days ending June 29, 1882, gave 2,706 pounds of milk. Her 
weight was 720 pounds, thus in two months producing milk over 3f times 
her own weight. 

Mention is also made of another famous Jersey bull of Tennessee, King 
Koffee, Jr., 12317, the property of W. Gettys, Ingleside Farm, Athens, 
Tennessee. At five months old this bull was brought south at the price of 
$3,500. He was born April 11, 1884, and remained in service at the head 
of the Getty herd until 1898. 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS UTAH. 

UTAH. 



283 



Agricultural Experiment Station at Logan. 



Report by F. B. Linfield, Professor of Animal Industry. 



The Utah Experiment Station has no remarkable records in milk or 
butter production to report. This was scarcely possible from the nature 
of our work. Our herd was largely composed of grades and we did not 
have a dairy district from which to select. Moreover, the time of our 




MARY CHALLENGER-PURE BRED SHORTHORN. 
One Year"s Record— 7,228 Pounds of Milk, 285 Pounds Butler. 

observations has been limited. The only breeds that have been represented 
on the College Farm and in the dairy herd have been Jerseys and Short 
horns and grades of those breeds. 

The best record from a pure bred Jersey was 967 pounds of milk per 
month and 55 pounds of butter. The best yearly record of this cow was 



284 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



6,801 pounds of milk and 365 pounds of butter. The cow is of the St. Lam- 
bert strain of Jerseys and was seven years old when the record was made. 
The best Shorthorn record was from a cow that lived longer on the 
College Farm than any other animal the college has owned, viz: ten years. 
She gave 1,406 pounds of milk for one month and 50 pounds of butter. 
For a year her best record was 7,228 pounds of milk and 285 pounds of but- 
ter. Her milk always tested low, averaging but little over three per cent, 
and several mornings' milkings went as low as 2.5 per cent. fat. The 




GRADE SHORTHORN— "A TYPICAL DUAL PURPOSE COW 



year the cow produced her best record the major portion of her feed was 
roughage and but little grain was fed. The picture (page 283) shows her 
when eight years old. 

The best record made by any cow on the College Farm was by a grade 
Shorthorn. She gave 1,251 pounds of milk in one month and 66 pounds 
of butter. 

For a year her best record was 8,859 pounds of milk and 424 pounds 
of butter. The record of this cow alternated from year to year; an extra 
record one year and the next year lower. The illustration above shows her 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS UTAH. 



285 



when ten years old, in the first month of milking, and on pasture when 
she was giving nearly two pounds of butter a day. She is what I call a 
typical dual purpose cow. 

If four years and not one were considered, then another grade Short- 
horn is entitled to first place. This cow gave 7,282 pounds of milk and 367 
pounds of butter on the average for four years; and varied but little from 
year to year. The average of the cow above described (page 2S4) was but 
315 pounds of butter for the same period. 

A record on a par with those, though only one year's record is ob- 
tainable, was made by a grade Jersey. She produced 5,659 pounds of milk 




JERSEY BULL-FIRST PRIZE WINNER UTAH STATE FAIR- 1901. 

in a year and 402 pounds of butter. This cow gave the highest test of any 
cow kept on the farm, the average test for the year being 6.11 per cent, 
fat. For months at a time, in the latter periods of lactation, her test 
varied between six and eight per cent, fat for morning's and evening s 
milk. 

It can scarcely be said that any dairy bull has become noted in this 
state. The practice of our farmers is against such records being made. 



286 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

Very few farmers keep a bull over two years. In-and-in-breeding seems to 
be a bugaboo, and therefore the least approach to such a practice is avoided. 
In very many cases this is a mistaken notion, but the results are that a 
bull is usually disposed of before any opportunity of testing his heifers is 
possible. 

The Jersey bull here illustrated (page 285) was used on the College 
Farm for four years, and his sire for five years before him. As far as 
points go, he is an almost ideally shaped bull, strong head and crest, a large 
barrel and light hind quarters. He was sold last fall and later exhibited at 
the State Fair and took first prize in his class. Neither this bull nor his 
sire however, produced cows from the grade herd that equaled the records 
of the grade Shorthorns described. 

I have heard of no carefully kept records of the yearly production of 
cows by any farmers in this state. A few reports compiled from creamery 
records show that some common cows in the hands of farmers produce 300 
pounds of butterfat in a year, and several whose herds will average close 
to 250 pounds of butterfat. I do not believe, however, that the average 
herd in this state will give anything above 150 pounds of butterfat. 



VERMONT. 



Agricultural Experiment Station at Burlington. 



Report by Joseph L. Hills, Director. 



The Vermont Experiment Station herd of some sixty odd animals is 
made up mainly of grade Jerseys. We have always had, however, from four 
to six registered Ayrshires, and from three to six registered Jerseys. No other 
breeds have been kept for many years, although some registered Holsteins 
were members of the herd prior to 1894. I have assumed that the report 
called for 'refers to registered animals only, but have inserted also the par- 
ticularly good record of a grade Jersey. 

Ayrshire, Nancy B., 9581 A. R. Was dropped April 1, 1887. Her 
sire was Buffalo Bill 4099 A. R. Her dam was Miss Cornelia 3rd, 8934 A. R. 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS VERMONT. 



287 



She was purchased by the Experiment Station in 1894 from Mr. L. S. Drew, 
Burlington, Vermont, late president of the Ayrshire Breeders' Association. 
She has had seven full years at the station. Her milk yield has ranged from 
6,068 pounds to 9,161 pounds, and averaged 7,946 pounds. Her butter yield 
has ranged from 288 to 416, and has averaged 362 pounds. ■ The quality 
of her milk has been quite uniform, and is on the average for the seven years 
3.90 per cent. She is a typical Ayrshire, has perhaps rather more of the 
dark red and less of the white than the generality of the Ayrshires of late 
years, is a hearty feeder and has made a pound of milk cheaply, and a pound 
of butter at medium prices. The average cost of her food yearly has been 




, 



NANCY B. 9,581 A. R — AYRSHIRE COW. 

Average Yearly Record for Seven Years, 7.916 Pounds Milk, 3t52 Pounds Butter. 

(Somewhat out of condition and nearly dry when photographed.) 

$54.57; of purchased grain $20.19; and of the sales of her butter, at prices 
varying from 23 to 27J cents a pound, $91.73. The price for food has been 
reckoned from prices paid for grain in the several years, allowing $9 to 
$10.50 a ton for hay, and $3 a ton for silage and soiling crops; $5 a year 
for a season's pasturage per animal. The prices for roughages, it will be 



288 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



noted, more than cover cost of raising and harvesting in average seasons, 
and, indeed, are much higher than are frequently used in figuring costs of 
food in comparisons of this kind. 

Grade Jersey. The cow Eva, now nine years old, was purchased 
for $45 of a farmer in Central Vermont, who evidently did not know what 
he had. Her lines of breeding are not known. She has had three years' 
record at this station. Her milk yield has ranged from 5,030 to 7,333 
pounds, and averaged 6,182 pounds. Her butter yield has varied from 427' 




EVA, AT NINE YEARS OLD-GRADE JERSEY. 
Average Yearly Record for Three Years, G.1&2 Pounds of Milk, 173 Pounds Butter, 



to 533, and averaged 475 pounds. The quality of her milk has been some- 
what variable, having ranged from 6.23 to 7.27, averaging 6.86 per cent, 
of fat. She is a well formed cow, and fairly typical of the Jerseys. She 
is a hearty eater. Her food has averaged to cost $53.05; and the purchased 
grain $22.05. She makes a pound of milk at a medium cost and a pound 
of butter at very low cost, 11.3 cents a pound. Her butter, at prices rang- 
ing from 26 to 27| cents, has averaged $127.98 a year. This last year the 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS VERMONT. 



289 



sale of her butter brought in $146.51, or $90.86 above the cost of feed, even 
rating this at the high prices referred to tinder Nancy B., and notwithstand- 
ing the high prices of grain which obtained during 1901. 

Jersey, Minta Bella, 85578 A. J. C. C. Was dropped November 
8, 1891. Her sire was Obclla's Rioter 23181 A. J. C. C. Her dam was 
Erminta V., 53553 A. J. C. C. She was bought in 1895 from Hon. H. W 
Vail of North Pomfret, Vermont, who was at one time a member of the 
executive committee of the American Jersey Cattle Club. She has had 
six full years' record at the station. The pounds of milk given have ranged 
from 4,726 to 6,860, and have averaged 5,748. Pounds of butter given have 




GARFIELD'S BLACK PRINCESS, A. J. C. C. 97,555, AT TWO YEARS OLD. 

From April 10, 11)00, to May 27, l'.lOl, gave 8.515% pounds milk: average of six Babcock tests showed 
6.1 per cent, butterfat, equal to 000 pounds of butter. 



ranged from 345 to 458, and have averaged 405. She has been somewhat 
variable as regards the quality of her milk. It has alwavs been high, but 
has sometimes been well above six per cent, and sometimes below. For 
instance, in 1899 it was 6.60, in 1900 5.72, and in 1901 5.62. She gave, 
however, in these three successive years, 381, 458 and 404 pounds of butter. 



290 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



The average for the six years of the quality of the milk was 6.07 per cent of 
fat. She is a typical Jersey, of a rather spare form. She is a hearty feeder 
for a Jersey. The average total cost for food has been $45.47; for purchased 
grain $16.48. She has not made a pound of milk as cheaply as Ayrshires, 
although she has made it as cheap as any of the Jerseys or grade Jerseys. 
She ranks at the head, however, as an economical maker of butter, it having 
cost for food 11.2 cents a pound. The proceeds of butter sales, at prices 
varying from 23 to 27+ cents, have averaged $103.94 yearly. The same 
remarks concerning cost of food given under Nancy B. obtain here. 

Quite complete statistics taken by the State Board of Agriculture some 
seven years ago show an average production per cow of about 156 pounds 
for the state as a whole. I am inclined to believe that this figure has been 
increased of late years, so that it probably is now 165 pounds; but this is 
more or less guesswork. 




'THE BEST BULL EVER IN VERMONT." 
Garfield Stoke Pogis, A. J. C. C. 15,903. Owned by Billings Farm. Woodstock, Vt. 

In answer to the request for description of some one or more noted 
bulls and record cows of the state, any breed, Professor Hills submits the 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS WISCONSIN. 291 

following letter written by Hon. George Aitken, manager of the Billings 
Farm, Woodstock, Vermont, and prominent in state agricultural affairs: 

Woodstock, Vt., March 24, 1902. 
Prof. J. L. Hills. 

Dear Sir: Yours of the 21st at hand and I enclose the record of two 
cows, one of which, Woodstock Princess, is the dam of your Station bull, 
"Col. Cassius"; she made 604 pounds; the other is Garfield's Black Princess, 
606 pounds. I have enclosed the photo of Black Princess at two years old; 
have none of Woodstock Princess. Have ordered one of Garfield Stoke 
Pogis; his picture ought to be in this publication, as I consider him the best 
bull ever in Vermont. He was the sire of 37 tested cows. 

I can furnish you any number of the records, but thought you would 
like one of the dam of your bull. 

What do you think of this for heifer with first calf? Garfield's Lily, 
a full sister of Lily Garfield, the champion heifer at Chicago, from Septem- 
ber 10, 1900, to September 15, 1901, gave 6,456 pounds milk, average test 
of 5.8, equal to 437J pounds butter. 

Here's another: Empress Lily, who is a good deal more than half 
sister to your bull, with first calf from October 10, 1898, to December 3, 
1899, gave 6,450^ pounds milk, testing 6.6, equal to 496J- pounds butter, 
How's that for two-year olds; can you do better at the Station? 

Very truly yours, 

Geo. Aitken. 

The good dairyman is always enthusiastic and his pride in the record 
of his herd is more than pardonable; it is praiseworthy. The appended 
illustrations certainly picture two very fine animals. 



WISCONSIN. 



Agricultural Experiment Station at Madison. 



Report by Prof. E. H. Farrington, in Charge of Dairy' School. 

During the past three years the Wisconsin Dairy School has tested 
a number of cows on the farms of patrons of the Dairy School Creamery. 
The milk of each cow was weighed at the farm for two milkings of a day 
in each week, samples being sent to the creamery and there tested. 
These records in many cases were continued through the entire year. 
Over two hundred cows belonging to the farmers have been tested in 
this way. The records thus obtained furnish evidence for discussing 



292 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



questions in which a great majority of the creamery and cheese factory pa- 
trons of the country are interested. Probably very few farmers realize 
that there is so great a difference in the production of the different cows 
in a herd, as these tests show to be the case. The cows, however, are 
undoubtedly a fair representation of the one million cows that produce the 
butter and cheese of Wisconsin. In these tests the cows were all measured 
by the same standard, the weight and test of the milk for a year. 

The extreme variations in the butter value of the cows of the different 
farmers is shown in the following table : 

Tabic sli wing variations during one year in the butler value of the cows in 

patrons' herds. 



A— 1898 

1 900 

1001 

B— 1S98 

C— 1898 

D— 1898 

1900 

E— 1898 

1000 

1901 

F— 1S98 

1 900 

G— 1000 

H— 1900 

1901 

1—1901 

J— 1901 

K— 1900 

1901 



No. of 

cows in 
herd. 



12 

11 

11 

5 

12 



(i 

5 

5 

4 

9 

. .7 

1 1 

8 

S 

24 

7 



CREAMERY PA IT. 



T< >tal cash. 



$421 

405 
124 

572 

22S 



227 



563 
358 
332 



270 
293 

248 



Average 
)cr cow. 



535 11 

36 82 
33 55 

47 70 
38 00 



CREAMERY VALUE O? DUTTER. 



45 40 



40 00 
44 75 

41 50 



38 60 
37 00 
31 00 



Best cow. 


$53 


35 


82 


23 


64 


93 


58 


21 


60 


72 


55 


49 


51 


28 


67 


47 


68 


16 


70 


72 


60 


29 


58 


70 


72 


21 


66 


08 


62 


71 


67 


85 


51 


14 


54 


61 


46 


81 



Poor 


est 


328 


72 


20 


18 


23 


51 


44 


83 


37 


96 


39 


60 


28 


40 


44 


40 


43 


47 


59 


47 


34 


00 


31 


90 


39 


32 


17 


23 


46 


65 


14 


56 


37 


58 


22 


35 


36 


69 



Average 

cow. 

$36 30 

39 20 
33 92 
50 00 

43 83 

44 12 
4 1 42 
5?, 40 
CI 20 
C2 11 



44 00 
56 57 
50 00 
56 00 
39 00 
46 00 
39 00 
42 00 



♦Figures are not given because patrons did not bring milk to the creamery during 
the entire year; samples of each cow's milk were, however tested. 



If, as stated by each farmer, that he fed all his cows in the same way, and 
the time and labor of milking and feeding the cows was approximately the 
same for both good and poor cows, it follows that it did not cost any more 
to feed the best than the poorest cows in the herd. The information furnished 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS WISCONSIN. 



293 



by such tests as these may be very valuable to the owner of the cows, and 
it should be of vital importance to the cow, as her life ought to depend on 
the record she makes. Previous to making the tests the owners of these 
cows had very little, if any, accurate idea of the relative value of their 
cows, but the record shows that the information gained is worth many 
times the cost of a milk weighing scale and Babcfeck milk test, and the time 
necessary to use them. 

In addition to these tests of pattrons' cows, many cow records are 
made at the Agricultural College, and tests are also conducted at various 
farms throughout the state. A few of these records have been taken 
from the Annual Report of the Wisconsin Agricultural Expei- 
ment Station, and are given in the following pages as worked out by 
Prof. Carlyle. 




JANESVILLE R03E-PURE BRED SHORTHORN. 



Description and history. The above photograph represents a pure 
bred shorthorn cow 12 years old, bred by Walter Little, Janesville, Wis. 



294 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



She was purchased from him a few weeks before dropping her calf, and 
during the first part of the year she gave every evidence of being very 
homesick, which in all probability was responsible for her record not 
being much higher. As will be seen from the photograph, she repre- 
sents a good type of the up-to-date Shorthorn breeding cow. She traces 
directly to imported stock and is the dam and granddam of many choice 
cows and heifers owned by Mr. Little. 

Production. During the milking period of 338 days she gave 7,833 
lbs. of milk which contained 295.84 lbs. of fat, or 343.44 pounds of but- 
ter. The average amount of butter fat in her milk for the year was 4.0 per 
cent. 

Profit. Her feed for the year cost $38.19 cents, being the second 
largest feed account in the herd, which is no doubt attributable to the poor 
condition of her teeth at twelve years of age. Her butter and skim milk 
products were valued at $79.25, leaving a profit of $41.06. 




ROSE— GRADE SHORTHORN. 



Rose was bred by the pure-bred Shorthorn bull General Bly of-Oakland 
17th 107,946. The dam of this bull was Oxford Bloom 7th of Oakland, 
a cow that won first prize in her class some years ago with strong com- 
petition at the Minnesota State Fair and at the Wisconsin State Fair two 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS WISCONSIN. 



295 



years in succession when shown as a Shorthorn cow by her breeders, Kiser 
Bros. The sire of Rose's dam was a pure-bred Shorthorn bull Sharon 
Duke 9th 89,384, and is represented as being a very typical Shorthorn bull, 
his sire being Sharon Duke of Geneva 64,454, and his dam 7th Profitable 
of Oakland. Rose's granddam was sired by a pure-bred Shorthorn bull 
bred by Wm. Kiser, and her great granddam was sired by a pure-bred Short- 
horn bull bred by Wm. Lysaght, Dane Co., Wis. The fourth dam of Rose 
was a common scrub or native cow with no pretensions to a high type of 
dairy form or performance. 

Production. During her last period of lactation, which lasted 365 
davs, she gave 11,131.7 lbs. of milk, containing 500 lbs. of butter fat or 
its equivalent of 584.09 lbs. of butter. The average percentage of fat in 
her milk for the period was 4.7 per cent. 

Profit. The total feed consumed during the year cost $39.60. The 
total value of butter and skim milk was f 131.83, leaving a profit over cost 
of feed of $92.23. Her butter, produced at a cost of 6.7 per pound, is cheaper 
than that of any other cow in the University dairy herd. 




LADY— GRADE RED POLLED COW 



296 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



Description. The photograph of Lady represents a grade Red 
Polled cow, with two crosses of Red Polled blood. She is an almost ideal 
type of the best dairy strain of Red Polled cattle. Very fine in the 
head and neck and showing a beautiful udder and milk vein system, 
with remarkable digestive capacity. 

Production. She gave during one year 8,G30 lbs. of milk with an 
average butter fat content of 3.98 per cent., equivalent to 345 lbs. of butter 
fat or 403 lbs. of butter.. 




DONATION-GRADE HOLSTEIN COW. 



Description. This cow was donated to the University of Wisconsin 
by the Holstein breeders of the state. She is a three-quarter bred Holstein, 
her sires for two generations having been bred by Gillett & Son of Rosendale. 
She is an exceedingly fine type of dairy cow, one of the most perfect in this 
respect that can be found in the State of Wisconsin. 

Production. She gave during the year 12,956 lbs. of milk, testing 
on the average 3.9 per cent, butter fat, equivalent to 498 lbs. of butter fat 
or 581 lbs. of butter. 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS — WISCONSIN. 



297 



NAN — GRADE JERSEY COW. 

Description. Nan is a very small and very refined grade Jersey cow 
with an almost ideal dairy form. Her average weight is below 750 11 is. 
While exceedingly small in size she is remarkable in her constitutional 
development as indicated by large heart girth and the rugged vigor which 
is noted at every point. 




NAN-GRADE JERSEY CCW. 



Production. During one year she gave 8,996 lbs. of milk, with an 
average test of 5.08 per cent, butter fat, equivalent to 451 lbs. of butter 
fat or 526 lbs. of butter. 

ALMA MARIE 3RD. 

Description. This is a small and very refined Holstcin cow, her average 
weight for the year being about 1,000 lbs. She has a remarkable develop- 
ment of rear udder, somewhat light in the fore udder but wonderful milk 
veins. She is considered generally by Holstcin breeders to be undersized. 

Production. She has not completed her best year's work as yet. Has 
been milking six months, dtirinc; which time she has riven 9,576 lbs. of 



298 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



milk, with an average of 3.25 per cent, of butter fat, equivalent to 297.43. 
lbs. of butter fat or 347 lbs. of butter. She is promising remarkably well 
to continue this record for some months yet. 




ALMA MARIE 3rd— PURE BRED H0LSTEIN. 

The following report on two cows of the state that have made phe- 
nomenal butter records, and were tested during the year 1899, is taken 
from the herd register for January, 1900, of the American Guernsey Cattle 
Club, vol. 10, and an annual report of the Wisconsin Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station. After the tests the two cows were sold for $4,500, and 
have since maintained a most splendid record. 

James H. Beirne of Oakfield. Wis., entered the two Guernsey cows, 
Lily Ella 7240, and Lilyita 7241, in the single cow contest of the Home Butter 
tests for 1899, of the American Guernsey Cattle Club. Both cows were 
five years old and both calved on the same day, Dec. 7, 1898, and both 
were sirsd by the same bull, Lily's Bonny Boy 2676. They were bred by 
N. K. Fairbanks at Lake Geneva, Wis. Lilyita's dam was Zoelita 5949, 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS WISCONSIN. 



299 



and Lily Ella's dam, Zoclla 3301. Both cows produced a living calf during 
the year and were dry about eight days before calving. 

Mr. Beirne weighed and recorded the milk of each milking and once 
a month took a composite sample of the night and following morning's 
milk and sent it to the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment station where 
it was tested by the Babcock test. Four inspection samples were taken 
during the year by a representative of the Wisconsin Experiment Station 




LILY ELLA 7,240— REGISTERED GUERNSEY. 

Pin i9 £&? C ™U H °T, e Butter Tests 1899 - Production in one year at five years old, 
J.AZ82.M pounds milk, average per cent, fat 6.42, pounds fat 7S2.lt;, equal to <H2.o pounds 
butter. Picture above shows her as she appeared in this test. ^ 

at the barn during milking time. The tests of these samples agreed very 
closely with those of the samples sent by Mr. Beirne. 

Mr. Beirne took charge of the cows and during the entire test he fed 
and milked the cows. They were stabled in box stalls and were fed the 
following rations per day per cow: 

November, 30 lbs. silage, 4 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. corn meal and what clover 
hay they would eat clean. December, after the cows had calved, the feed 
was gradually increased to the following ration: 15 lbs. silage, 5 lbs. hay, 



300 



THE CREAMERY PATRON S HANDBOOK. 



10 lbs. mangles, 6 lbs. bran, 4 lbs. ground oats, 2 lbs. corn nieal, 1 lb. 
oil meal. 

In January, and until February 20th, the daily ration of each was 35 
lbs. silage, 5 lbs. hay, 10 lbs. mangles, 7 lbs. bran, 7 lbs. ground oats, 3 lbs. 
corn meal, 1 lb. oil meal, 1 lb. gluten. This ration was continued until 
May 1st, excepting that after February 20th the gluten meal was not fed. 

In May the ration was gradually changed to 5 lbs. bran and 5 lbs. ground 




ULYITA 7241 -REGISTERED GUERNSEY. 
Second Prize Cow, Home Butter Tests 1899. Production in one year, at five years old, 
12.812.73 pounds milk, average per cent, fat 5.69, pounds fat 710.53, equal tc 82S.95 pounds 
butter. Picture shows her as she appeared in this test. 

oats with pasture. In July the grain was increased by 2 lbs. corn meal. 

In August, 6 lbs. bran and 6 lbs. corn meal. 

In September 7 lbs. bran and 7 lbs. corn meal. 

In October, 4 lbs. bran and 4 lbs. corn meal and 4 lbs. ground oats, the 
cows being at pasture during this time. During the winter the silage and 
grain were fed half in the afternoon and half in the morning; the grain 
was mixed and fed on the silage. The cows cleaned up their feed in about 
one hour; at noon they were each fed 5 lbs. cl ver hay. and at nine in the 



TESTED DAIRY ANIMALS WISCONSIN. 



301 



evening they were given 10 lbs. mangles. They were watered twice a day 
and drank about 100 lbs. 

The detail records of the two cows as published in the Guernsey Herd 
Register are as follows: 



LILY ELLA 7240. 





Milk. 


Fat. 


Fat. 


Butter 




Month. 


lbs. 


per cent. 


lbs. 
28.17 


lbs. 


Remarks. 


Noy.,'98 


411.25 


6.85 


32.87 




Dec, " 


882.44 


6.00 


52.95 


61 78 


Calved Dec. 7. 


Jan., '99 


1,427.14 


5.5 


78 . 49 


91.57 


Inspection sample tested 5.7 


Feb., " 


1,375.50 


5.8 


79 . 78 


93.08 


Composite weeks test 5.7. 


Mar., " 


1,377.25 


6.2 


85.39 


99.62 


Inspection sample 5.7. 


Apr., " 


1,141.14 


6.3 


71.89 


83.87 




May " 


1,200.25 


(6.3) 


75.62 


88.22 


Sample lost, averaged. 


June, " 


1,128.88 


6.3 


71.12 


82.97 


3 days composite sample 6.7. 


J"lv, " 


906.81 


7.15 


64. S4 


75 . 64 


4 days composite sample 5.7. 


Aug., " 


855 . 88 


6.65 


56.92 


66 . 40 




Sept., " 


800 . 00 


7.25 


58.00 


67.67 




Oct., " 


776.14 


7.60 


58 . 99 


68.81 




Total 


12,282.68 




782.16 


912.50 





LILYITA 7241 



Month. 


Milk. 

lbs. 


Fat. 
per cent. 


Fat. 

lbs. 


Butter, 
lbs 

26.71 


Remarks. 


Nov. '98 


313.63 


7.3 


22 . 89 




Dec, " 


874.14 


5.9 


51.57 


60.71 


Calved Dec. 7. 


Jan., '99 


1,477.38 


5.3 


78.30 


91.35 


Inspection sample 4.95. 


Feb., " 


1.479.50 


5.0 


73.98 


86.31 


Composite weeks test 5.28. 


Mar., " 


1,437.94 


5.4 


77 . 65 


90.59 


Inspection sample 5.5. 


Apr., " 


1,215.50 


5.4 


65 . 64 


76.58 




Mav, " 


1,270.75 


(5 . 55) 


70 . 53 


82.28 


Sample lost. 


June, " 


1,238.25 


5.7 


70.58 


82 . 34 


3 days composite sample 6.0. 


July, " 


959.00 


5.86 


56 . 1 


05.45 


4 days composite sample 5.7. 


Aug., " 


894 . 75 


5.4 


48.32 


56.37 




Sept., " 


839.75 


5.7 


47.87 


55.85 




Oct., " 


812.14 


5.8 


47.10 


54 . 95 




Total 


12,812.73 




710.53 


828 . 95 





What is strength, without a double share 

Of Wisdom? — Vast, unwieldly, burdensome; 

Proudly secure, yet liable to fall 

By weakest subtleties; not made to rule, 

But to subserve where wisdom bears command. 

— Milton. 



302 



SCALE OF POINTS FOR SCORING DAIRY ANIMALS. 



RULES ADOPTED BY THE BREEDERS OF THE GUERNSEY AND THE 

JERSEY. 

Notes by Association Committee. 

Cattle breeders' associations have established standards by which ex- 
cellence of any animal of the breed shall be judged and rated, as nearly 
as may be from long study of the points that indicate to the observer the 
worth of the animal for butter or for beef production, and the dairy farmer 
should familiarize himself with the characteristics that denote the type of 
animal he is dealing with. In the following are given the scoring points as 
adopted by the breeders of the Guernsey and of the Jersey, being consid- 
ered sufficient to express to the reader those points most desired in the 
conformation of the dairy animal, and by which standards, with due allow- 
ance for general breed type, each reader may score his own herd and estab- 
lish a standard to which each animal shall attain to keep its place in the 
dairv. While the Babcock test and the scales must give the final judgment 
of the dairy cow's standing as a profitable animal, there is need to know the 
way by which to judge the young animal's possible performance, and these 
tables of the scoring points are the key to that wider knowledge. 

THE GUERNSEY. 

All measurements, description and scaling shall be in accerd with 
following scale of points for Guernsey cattle, adopted by The American 
Guernsey Cattle Club, December 13, 1899: 

303 



304 



THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 



Dairy Tempera- 
ment, 
Constitution, 
38. 



Milking Marks 
denoting 
Quantity of flow, 
10. 



Udder Formation, 
26. 

Indicating 
Color of Milk, 

15. 
Milking Marks 

denoting 
Quality of Flow 
6. 



Symmetry and size. 
5. 



For Cows 
f Clean cut, lean face; strong sinewy jaw; wide 
muzzle with wide open nostrils; full, bright eye 
with quiet and gentle expression; forehead 

long and broad 5 

Long thin neck with strong juncture to head; 
clean throat. Back bone rising well between 
shoulder blades; large rugged spinal processes, 
indicating good development of the spinal 

cord 5 

Pelvis arching and wide; rump long; wide, strong 
structure of spine at setting on of tail. Long 
thin tail with good switch. Thin incurving 

thighs 5 

Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide apart, giv- 
ing an open, relaxed conformation; thin arching 

flank 5 

Abdomen large and deep, with strong muscular 
and navel development, indicative of capacity 

and vitality 15 

Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feeling and tex- 
ture, but not thick 3 

( Escutcheon wide on thighs; high and broad with 

thigh ovals 2 

j Milk veins long, crooked, branching and prom- 
inent, with large or deep wells 8 

Udder full in front 8 

Udder full and well up behind 8 

Udder of large size and capacity 4 

Teats well apart, squarely placed, and of good and 

even size G 

i Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of tail, at 
•s base of horns, on udder, teats and body gener- 
( erally. Hoof, amber colored 15 

i Udder showing plenty of substance but not too 

( meaty 6 

r Color of Hair a shade of fawn, with white mark- 
ings. Cream colored nose. Horns amber 

j colored, small, curved and not coarse 3 

j Size for the breed: Mature cows, four years old 

l or over, about 1050 lbs 2 

Perfection. 100 



SCORING OF DAIRY CATTLE. 



305 



Dairy Tempera- 
ment, 
Constitution, 
38. 



For Bulls. 

Clean cut, lean face; strong sinewy jaw, wide 
muzzle with wide open nostrils; full bright eye 
with quiet and gentle expression ; forehead long 
and broad 5 

Long masculine neck with strong juncture to 
head; clean throat. Backbone rising well 
between shoulder blades; large rugged spinal 
processes, indicating good development of the 
spinal cord 5 

Pelvis arching and wide; rump long; wide strong 
structure of spine at setting on of tail. Long 
thin tail with good switch. Thin, incurving 
thighs 5 

Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide apart, 
giving an open relaxed conformation; thin, 
arching flank 5 

Abdomen large and deep, with strong muscular 
and navel development, indicative of capacity 
and vitality 15 

Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feeling and tex- 
ture, but not thick 3 



Dairy Prepotency, 
15. 



j As shown by having a great deal of vigor, style, 

' alertness, and resolute appearance 15 



Rudimcntarics and 
Milk Veins, 
10. 



Rudimentaries of good size, squarely and broadly 
placed in front of and free from scrotum. Milk 
veins prominent 10 



Indicating color of 
Milk in Offspring, 
15. 



/ Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of tail, at 
< base of horns and body generally, hoofs amber 
( colored 15 



Symmetry and Size ; 
22. 



{ Color of hair, a shade of fawn with white mark- 
ings. Cream colored nose. Horns amber- 

! colored, curving and not coarse 8 

J Size for the breed: Mature bulls, four years old 

or over, about 1500 lbs 4 

General appearance as indicative of the power to 
beget animals of strong dairy qualities 10 



Perfection. 100 



306 the creamery patron's handbook. 

Explanatory Notes by Committee. 

We recognize the Guernsey should be: 

First. A dairy animal with a distinctive dairy temperament and con- 
formation, having a strong, nervy structure with a corresponding flow of 
nervous energy, and every indication of capacity and vitality. 

Second. In color of hair, a shade of fawn, with white on limbs and under- 
paid of body are considered the prevailing markings, and some degree of 
uniformity is desirable. 

Third. One of the important distinguishing features of the breed is 
the presence of yellow color in the pigment of- the skin, which is indicative 
of rich golden color in the milk. This is very pronounced in the Guernsey 
and held by her to the greatest extent under all conditions of stabling and 
feed. The intensity of this trait is more marked in some animals and fam- 
ilies than in others, but it should be kept at the highest standard. It is 
fast being recognized that this color is accompanied by a superior flavor 
in the milk and thus in the butter. 

Dairy Temperament. 

By "Dairy Temperament" is meant a strong, overruling pre-disposition 
or tendency to turn the consumption of food towards the production of 
milk with a high content of solids, especially butter fat, as against the con- 
stitutional tendency so often seen to turn food into flesh. Even in the 
strongest dairy breeds there are more or less frequent out-crops in male 
and female of the flesh making temperament. To breed from such animals, 
while we are striving to establish a prepotent dairy temperament or tendency, 
is not wise. All cattle bred specifically for dairy purposes should possess 
a clear and decided dairy temperament, for it is that quality of character 
we most desire to establish, enlarge and perpetuate in the Guernsey cow. 

This is especially indicated by the shape of the head, showing brain 
capacity, wide muzzle, open nostril, full bright eyes, feminine neck, and a 
construction of the back bone indicating a strong flow of nerve power and 
support from the brain to all of the maternal organs. 

Constitution. 

In breeding our domestic animals, especially for long service like the 
dairy cow, it is very important that they should have abundant vital power 
which we call "constitution." But constitution must be judged and meas- 
ured by the peculiar function the animal is bred to fulfil. With the race 
horse the function is speed; with the steer, the laying on of flesh; with the 
dairy cow, the production of milk solids . In all these various functions 
the animal that is to represent any one of them must show not only large 
capacity in the line of that function, but also the ability to endure long 
and well the strain of such function, and keep in good health. Constitution 
is best indicated by a full development at the navel, and strong abdomi- 
nal walls, showing that the animal when in a prenatal state was abund- 
antly nourished by the mother through a well developed umbilical cord. 



SCORING OF DAIRY CATTLE. 307 

Prepotency . 
In the scale far bulls for the first time, we believe, in the history of 
dairy breeds, this point is introduced. The reason we have included it is 
that 'prepotency" is the chief consideration in the selection of the male 
breeding animal. The pedigree and conformation is often all that can be 
desired but because the bull is lacking in prepotent breeding power he is 
an expensive failure. This quality is in a sense difficult to perceive or 
describe, but we know certain animals have it in high degree and others 
fail of it completely. It is fairly well indicated by vigor of appearance, 
strong, resolute bearing, and abundant nervous energy. We would dis- 
tinguish this from an ugly disposition. A bull is ugly by the way he is 
handled rather than by his breeding. What we want is strong impressive 
blood. A dull sluggish spirit and action, we consider indicative of a lack 
of true dairy prepotency, but we would prefer to breed to a rather sluggish 
appearing bull with first class rudimentaries than to a stylish one with 
badly placed rudimentaries. 

Rudimentaries. 
We consider that a well balanced and well shaped udder in the cow 
is largely due to the way the rudimentary teats are placed on the sire. If 
they are crowded close together the result is likely to be narrow pointed 
udders. If they are placed well apart, of good size and well forward of 
the scrotum, the effect, we think, will be to influence largely the production 
of well-shaped udders in the resulting heifers and counteract the ten- 
dency to ill-shaped udders inheritable from dams deficient in this respect. 
We believe the future excellence of the Guernsey cow will be greatly 
aided by close attention on the part of her breeders to this point. 

THE JERSEY. 
Scale of Points Adopted by the American Jersey Cattle Club at 

the Annual Meeting held May 6, 1885, and in force without 

change since that date. 

for cows. 
Points. Counts. 

1. Head small and lean; face dished, broad between the eyes and 

narrow between the horns . 2 

2. Eyes full and placid; horns small, crumpled, and amber-colored 1 

3. Neck thin, rather long, with clean throat, and not heavy at the 

shoulders 8 

4 . Back level to the setting on of tail 1 

5 . Broad across the loins 6 

6 . Barrel long, hooped, broad and deep at the flank 10 

7 . Hips wide apart ; rump long 10 

8 . Legs short 2 

9 . Tail fine, reaching the hocks, with good switch ' 1 

10 . Color and mellowness of hide; inside of ears yellow 5 

1 1 . Fore udder full in form and not fleshy 13 



308 THE CREAMERY PATRON'S HANDBOOK. 

12 . Hind udder full in form and well up behind 11 

13 . Teats rather large, wide apart, and squarely placed 11 

14 . Milk veins prominent , , r , 

15 . Disposition quiet S 

16. General appearance and apparent constitution 10 

Ferfeetion 100 

In judging heifers, omit Nos. 11, 12 and 14. 

FOR BULLS. 

The same scale of points shall be used in judging bulls, omitting Nos. 
11, 12 and 14, and making due allowance for masculinity; but when bulls 
are exhibited with their progeny, in a separate class, add 30 counts for 
progeny. 



" When any great design thou dost intend, 
Think on the means, the manner, and the end. 

— Denham. 



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